Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology, Three-Volume Set

Youth, Employment of,  Pages 741-743, Fred W. Vondracek.pdf......Page 0
Editor-in-Chief......Page 2
Editorial Advisors......Page 3
Section Editors......Page 4
Preface......Page 5
Introduction......Page 7
Mechanisms of Continuity and Change......Page 8
Factors Affecting Whether Continuity or Change Is Observed......Page 9
Evidence for Continuity......Page 10
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory......Page 11
Subjective Measures......Page 12
Experience of Emotion......Page 13
Expression of Emotion......Page 14
Further Reading......Page 15
Glossary......Page 17
Modern Approaches and Contemporary Trends......Page 18
Issues and Strategies......Page 19
Further Reading......Page 20
Measurement of Personal Space......Page 21
Legal Uses......Page 22
Further Reading......Page 23
Overview and Definitions......Page 24
Brief History: From Interactional Psychology to Fit......Page 25
Supplementary and Complementary Fit......Page 26
How Fit Affects Responses in Organizations......Page 27
Direct Fit Versus Indirect Fit......Page 28
Organizational Culture and Climate......Page 29
Team Composition and Diversity......Page 30
Implications......Page 31
Possible Solutions......Page 32
Further Reading......Page 33
Recruitment......Page 34
Training......Page 35
Performance Appraisal and Feedback......Page 36
Compensation......Page 37
Further Reading......Page 38
Introduction......Page 40
Cognitive Ability Tests......Page 42
Personality Tests......Page 43
Job Simulations and Work Samples......Page 44
Drug Testing......Page 45
Fairness in Selection......Page 46
Emerging Issues in Selection......Page 47
Further Reading......Page 48
Introduction......Page 49
Play: Developmental Processes......Page 50
Play: Sociocultural Contexts......Page 51
Therapeutic Play......Page 53
Further Reading......Page 54
Glossary......Page 55
Historical Development......Page 56
Political Knowledge and Political Attitudes......Page 57
Traits......Page 58
Assimilation and Contrast Effects......Page 59
Ideological Orientation and Values......Page 60
Political Identity......Page 61
Regional, National, and Supranational Identity......Page 62
Mass Media and Politics......Page 63
Interviewing Politicians......Page 64
Political Discourse......Page 65
Cognitive Factors......Page 66
Social Factors......Page 67
Further Reading......Page 68
Glossary......Page 70
Postmodernity and the ‘‘Postmodern Condition’’......Page 71
Modern Psychology and the Analysis of Its Own Discourse......Page 72
Examples: The Study of Emotions, Attitudes, and Memory......Page 73
Implications for the New Role of the Psychologist......Page 74
Cyberpsychology and the Deconstruction of Gender......Page 75
Further Reading......Page 76
Overview: The Need for Counseling......Page 77
Influence of Diversity......Page 78
Career Decision Problems......Page 79
Family Problems......Page 80
Anxiety......Page 81
See Also the Following Articles......Page 82
Further Reading......Page 83
Glossary......Page 84
Course of Recovery from Trauma......Page 85
Assessment in the Wake of Trauma......Page 87
Establishing the Presence of Trauma......Page 88
Assessing Early Emotional Reactions to the Traumatic Event......Page 89
Psychological Treatment of Posttraumatic Disorders......Page 90
Further Reading......Page 91
Power and Influence......Page 92
Bases and Sources of Power......Page 93
Formal Authority and Leadership......Page 94
Models of Leadership......Page 95
Traits, Behaviors, and Situational Models......Page 96
Charismatic and Transformational Leadership......Page 98
See Also the Following Articles......Page 99
Further Reading......Page 100
Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination......Page 101
Causes of Prejudice and Discrimination......Page 102
The Experience of Being a Target of Prejudice and Discrimination......Page 103
Psychological Strategies for Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination......Page 104
Programs for Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination in Educational and Employment Settings......Page 105
Further Reading......Page 106
Definition......Page 108
Privacy Mechanisms......Page 109
Privacy Regulation as a ‘‘Cultural Universal’’......Page 110
Viability......Page 111
Crowding and Privacy Regulation......Page 112
Crime and Defensible Design......Page 114
Communication Technology and Privacy......Page 115
Health Care Privacy......Page 116
Further Reading......Page 117
Glossary......Page 119
Combinations of Efficiency and Effectiveness......Page 120
Measuring Productivity......Page 121
Criteria for a Good Productivity Measurement System......Page 122
Further Reading......Page 123
Introduction......Page 124
Theory of Reasoned Action......Page 125
The Theory of Planned Behavior......Page 126
Norm Activation Theory......Page 127
Changes in the Physical Environment......Page 128
Financial Measures......Page 129
Information Strategies......Page 130
Considerations Regarding the Effectiveness of Interventions for Pro-environmental Behavior Change......Page 131
Further Reading......Page 132
Introduction......Page 133
Gender Differences......Page 134
Contextual Factors......Page 135
Further Reading......Page 136
Introduction......Page 138
ITC Guidelines on Test Use......Page 139
Test User Qualification......Page 140
Finland......Page 141
Further Reading......Page 142
Glossary......Page 143
Assessment......Page 144
Developmental Considerations......Page 145
Therapeutic Approaches......Page 146
Further Reading......Page 148
Glossary......Page 149
Introduction......Page 150
Physiological Arousal Regulation......Page 151
Attention and Concentration......Page 152
Mental Rehearsal and Imagery......Page 153
Anxiety and Personal Meaning......Page 154
Goal Setting......Page 155
Communication......Page 156
Arousal and Anxiety Regulation......Page 157
Improving Attention and Concentration......Page 159
Mental Imagery and Mental Rehearsal Training......Page 160
Acquiring Emotion Regulation Skills......Page 161
Enhancing Communication......Page 162
Further Reading......Page 163
Glossary......Page 165
Important Attributes of the Field......Page 166
Articles in This Section......Page 168
Legal Competency......Page 169
Forensic Mental Health Assessment in Legal Contexts......Page 170
Child Custody......Page 171
Children’s Testimony......Page 172
Interviewing and Interrogation......Page 173
Eyewitness Testimony......Page 174
Eyewitness Identification......Page 175
Jury Decision Making......Page 176
Further Reading......Page 178
Psychometric Tests Defined......Page 179
The Measurement Model......Page 180
Requirement of Technical Manual for All Psychometric Tests......Page 181
Conclusions......Page 182
Further Reading......Page 183
Glossary......Page 185
Immune-to-Brain Communication......Page 186
Stress Management......Page 187
Interventions in Cancer......Page 188
Further Reading......Page 189
Introduction......Page 190
Surface Electromyography......Page 191
Electrodermal Activity......Page 192
The Psychological Context......Page 193
Heart Rate......Page 194
Psychopathological Disorders......Page 195
Further Reading......Page 196
Glossary......Page 197
Assessment, Diagnosis, and Prevalence......Page 198
Other Individual Therapies......Page 199
Gender......Page 200
Further Reading......Page 201
Introduction......Page 203
Motivation for Counseling Racial and Ethnic Minorities......Page 204
Racial Identity......Page 205
Multicultural Counseling Competence......Page 206
Further Reading......Page 207
Rape: Definition and Prevalence......Page 208
Programs Directed at All-Male Audiences......Page 209
Programs Directed at Mixed-Sex Audiences......Page 210
Prevention Measures at the Societal Level......Page 211
Conclusion......Page 212
Further Reading......Page 213
Introduction......Page 214
Morphological Understandings......Page 215
Phonic Interventions......Page 216
Vocabulary Development and Reading Comprehension Strategies......Page 217
Shaping Reading Behaviors......Page 218
Motivating......Page 219
Further Reading......Page 220
Glossary......Page 222
Relationship between Teaching and Learning......Page 223
Learning to Read......Page 224
Teaching Reading Comprehension......Page 225
Writing......Page 226
Individualizing Instruction for Students with Reading Disabilities......Page 227
Further Reading......Page 228
Background......Page 229
Social Exchange......Page 230
Bargaining and Negotiation......Page 231
Further Reading......Page 232
Problems Resulting from Ineffective Employee Recruitment......Page 233
Recruitment Strategy Development......Page 234
Conclusion......Page 236
Further Reading......Page 237
Introduction......Page 238
History and Evolution......Page 239
Settings......Page 240
Summary......Page 241
Further Reading......Page 242
Introduction......Page 243
Negative Implications of Religion......Page 244
Further Reading......Page 245
Theories and Concepts......Page 247
The Meaning of Residential Environment and Home Attachment......Page 248
Preferences, Satisfaction, and Housing Choices......Page 249
Methods for Assessing Preferences......Page 250
Architectural Style......Page 251
Designers vs Users......Page 252
Moving Home and Attachment......Page 253
Further Reading......Page 254
Introduction......Page 255
Urban Environment Quality in Experts’ and Laypersons’ Evaluations......Page 256
Describing Residential Satisfaction and Perceived Residential Environment Quality......Page 257
Explaining Residential Satisfaction......Page 258
Further Reading......Page 259
Introduction......Page 261
Significance of the Natural-Urban Distinction......Page 262
Environmental Context......Page 263
Empirical Tests......Page 264
Practical Prospects......Page 265
Further Reading......Page 266
Defining Sexual Risk-Taking......Page 268
What Groups Are at High Risk for Teen Pregnancy and STIs?......Page 270
Why Do People Engage in Risky Sex?......Page 272
Sexual Communication Skills......Page 273
Further Reading......Page 274
Robotherapy: A New Era of Interactive, Nonpharmacological Interventions......Page 275
Robots as Therapeutic Tools: Early Experiments in the Field of Robotherapy......Page 276
Robots for Personal Assistance: Psychological and Physical Rehabilitation......Page 277
Person-Robot Communication as Complex Interactive System......Page 278
Further Reading......Page 279
Robotic Psychology: On the Coexistence of Humans and Robots......Page 280
Modeling Emotions......Page 281
Modeling Social Behavior......Page 282
Further Reading......Page 283
Glossary......Page 284
Errors: From the ‘‘Freudian Slip’’ to Taxonomies of Errors......Page 285
Strategies of Error Prevention......Page 287
From Engineering Control Solutions to Safety Behavior......Page 288
Recent Approaches to Safety: The Role of Management and Organizational Climate......Page 289
Safety-Enhancing Interventions......Page 290
Further Reading......Page 291
Glossary......Page 293
Foci of School-Community Partnerships......Page 294
Family and Student Health......Page 295
Tolerance and Diversity......Page 296
Community Volunteers and the Faith Community......Page 297
Roles and Responsibilities......Page 298
Strategies for Change......Page 299
Further Reading......Page 300
Introduction......Page 302
Developing Self-Discipline......Page 303
Using Discipline to Correct Misbehavior......Page 304
Preventing Misbehavior with Effective Classroom Management......Page 305
Remediating Serious Misbehavior......Page 306
Further Reading......Page 308
Glossary......Page 310
Special Influences in Schools and Classrooms......Page 311
A First Taxonomy for the Study of Stress in Schools......Page 316
A Recent Framework for Conceptualizing Person-Environment Relations in Learning Settings......Page 317
Schools of the Future......Page 318
Further Reading......Page 320
Glossary......Page 322
Qualifying School Psychology as a Profession......Page 323
The Elements of an Effective School and the Contributions of Applied Psychology to Effectiveness......Page 325
What School Psychologists Do to Be Effective......Page 328
This Section of the Encyclopedia......Page 329
Further Reading......Page 332
Overview......Page 333
A Historical and Sociopolitical Perspective......Page 334
Conclusion......Page 335
Further Reading......Page 336
Definition of School Violence......Page 337
Historical Perspective......Page 338
Effects of School Violence......Page 339
An Integrated Approach to School Violence Prevention......Page 340
Selected Prevention Measures......Page 341
Further Reading......Page 342
Definitions of Self-Confidence......Page 343
Influence of Self-Confidence on Thoughts and Emotions......Page 344
Sources of Self-Confidence in Athletes......Page 345
Measuring Self-Confidence in Athletes......Page 347
Self-Regulation......Page 348
Further Reading......Page 349
Glossary......Page 351
Delay of Gratification Paradigm......Page 352
Individual Differences......Page 353
Summary......Page 354
Further Reading......Page 355
Before Puberty......Page 356
Early Operant Learning......Page 357
Double Standards......Page 358
Six Basic Sex Differences......Page 359
Double Standards......Page 360
Early Sexual Problems......Page 361
Common Female Problems......Page 362
See Also the Following Articles......Page 363
Further Reading......Page 364
Sexual Permissiveness......Page 365
Industrial Societies......Page 366
Transgenderism......Page 367
Developing Societies......Page 368
Developing Societies......Page 369
Future Directions......Page 370
Further Reading......Page 371
Prominent Cases......Page 372
International Laws Against Sexual Harassment......Page 373
Integrative Organizational Model......Page 374
Incidence of Sexual Harassment......Page 375
Men as Victims of Sexual Harassment......Page 376
Cross-Cultural Victims......Page 377
Consequences of Sexual Harassment......Page 378
Types of Coping Responses......Page 379
Prevention and Intervention......Page 380
See Also the Following Articles......Page 381
Further Reading......Page 382
Social Comparison Theory......Page 383
Research on Principles of Social Comparison......Page 384
Forced Comparisons......Page 385
See Also the Following Articles......Page 386
Further Reading......Page 387
Glossary......Page 388
A Brief Historical Overview......Page 389
Identification and Evaluation Potential......Page 390
Other Integrative Models: Instrumentality, Value, and Equity......Page 391
Implications of Social Loafing......Page 392
Factors Related to the Organization......Page 393
Further Reading......Page 395
Introduction......Page 397
Efficiency of Information Diffusion in Various Types of Networks......Page 398
The Impact of Word-of-Mouth Communication......Page 399
Network Influences on the Diffusion of Information Versus Adoption Decisions......Page 400
Conclusions......Page 401
Further Reading......Page 402
Introduction......Page 403
Social Skills Training Procedures......Page 404
Social Learning Intervention Procedures......Page 405
Effectiveness of Social Skills Interventions......Page 406
Social Skills Acquisition Deficits with Interfering Problem Behaviors......Page 407
Further Reading......Page 408
Introduction......Page 410
Different Meanings of Social Support......Page 411
Social Support and Health......Page 412
Support Groups and Self-Help Groups......Page 413
Social Support in the Elderly......Page 414
Social Support and Social Skills......Page 415
Further Reading......Page 416
Glossary......Page 417
Introduction......Page 418
Development of Spatial Cognition: A Multidisciplinary Effort......Page 419
Spatial Cognition and Spatial Representation: Two Sides of the Same Coin......Page 420
Spatial Cognition in Animals......Page 421
The Neurobiology of Spatial Cognition......Page 422
Sex-Related Differences in Spatial Cognition......Page 423
Spatial Cognition without the Benefit of Sight......Page 424
New Frontiers in Spatial Cognition Research......Page 425
Further Reading......Page 426
Introduction......Page 427
The Rise of the Medical Model and the ‘‘Within Child’’ Deficit Approach to Special Education......Page 428
Classification and Labeling......Page 429
Identification Processes......Page 430
Placement and the Continuum of Services......Page 431
Physical and Neurological Disabilities......Page 432
Developmental Disabilities......Page 433
Medical and Technological Progress......Page 434
International Perspectives......Page 435
Further Reading......Page 436
Defining Sport Psychology......Page 437
How Sport Psychologists Work......Page 438
Sport and Competition......Page 439
Individual and Team Excellence......Page 440
High-Quality Practice......Page 441
Performance Related Experiences and Athletic Excellence......Page 442
Resources as Performance Enhancement Strategies......Page 443
Barriers to Athletic Excellence......Page 444
Athletic Career Demands, Coping Resources, and Barriers......Page 445
Athletes’ Successful Transitions and Crisis Transitions......Page 446
From Athletic to Personal Excellence......Page 448
Conclusion: Future Directions in Sport Psychology......Page 449
Further Reading......Page 450
Introduction......Page 452
The Sociocultural Approach......Page 453
Measuring Stereotypes......Page 454
Loss of Individual Information......Page 455
Stereotype Change......Page 456
Further Reading......Page 457
Introduction......Page 458
Chronic Stressors......Page 459
Physical Illness......Page 460
Personal Diatheses......Page 462
Adaptive Coping......Page 463
Further Reading......Page 465
Evolution of the Structure of Interests......Page 467
Alternative Approaches......Page 468
Extensions of the Circular Model: Spherical Structure......Page 469
Current Research......Page 470
Further Reading......Page 471
Introduction......Page 472
Study Skills in High- Versus Low-Achieving Students......Page 473
Four Clusters of Study Skills......Page 474
Conclusions and Future Directions......Page 475
Further Reading......Page 476
Categories......Page 477
Norms......Page 478
Further Reading......Page 479
Glossary......Page 480
Theories and Models Related to Career Development of Athletes......Page 481
Career Intervention Programs for Athletes......Page 484
Conclusion......Page 485
Further Reading......Page 486
Glossary......Page 487
Family Factors......Page 488
Most Common Methods of Suicide......Page 489
Role of Schools in Suicide Prevention......Page 490
What if the Death Was a Suicide?......Page 491
Status of State and Individual Initiatives......Page 492
Summary......Page 494
Further Reading......Page 495
Large Complex Sociotechnical Systems......Page 496
The Role of Psychology in System Safety......Page 498
Safety Culture......Page 499
Further Reading......Page 500
Introduction......Page 501
A General View of Teaching......Page 502
Teacher Characteristics......Page 503
Moving from Effective Teaching to Excellent Teaching......Page 504
Further Reading......Page 505
The Psychological Concept of Territoriality......Page 506
Methods of Measurement......Page 507
Dispute Resolution......Page 508
Further Reading......Page 509
Overview......Page 510
Conceptions of Test Anxiety......Page 511
Self-Report Instruments......Page 512
Practical Uses in Applied Settings......Page 513
Mediating Effects......Page 514
Emotion-Focused Interventions......Page 515
Clinical Considerations......Page 519
Consideration of Individual Differences......Page 520
Further Reading......Page 521
Introduction......Page 522
Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Problems......Page 523
The Cube Model......Page 524
Three Ways to Reduce Human Errors in Road Transport......Page 525
Further Reading......Page 526
Glossary......Page 528
Identifying and Improving Attitudes......Page 529
Others......Page 530
Experiential Techniques......Page 531
Program Evaluation and Dimensions of Success......Page 532
Further Reading......Page 533
Traits as Human Characteristics of Individual Differences......Page 534
The Big Five Dimensions of Personality......Page 535
Traits, Heritability, and Genetics......Page 536
The Big Five and Organizational Behavior......Page 537
Further Reading......Page 538
Conceptualizing Transfer......Page 539
Exemplifications......Page 540
The Question of Facilitated Transfer......Page 541
Taxonomies of Transfer......Page 542
Models of Transfer......Page 543
Information Processing Model......Page 544
Conceptual and Instructional Shifts......Page 545
The Validity of Transfer Thinking......Page 546
Counterintuitive Nature of Transfer......Page 547
Dispositional Characteristics and Aspects of Transfer......Page 548
Future Empirical Research and Theory......Page 549
Further Reading......Page 550
Glossary......Page 551
Translation and Cross-Cultural Research......Page 552
Back-Translation......Page 553
Emics and Etics......Page 554
Writing Translatable English......Page 555
Translation Style......Page 556
Translation and Qualitative Studies......Page 557
The Impact of Globalization......Page 558
Conclusion......Page 559
Further Reading......Page 560
Introduction......Page 561
Driver Distraction......Page 563
Driver Vision......Page 564
Conspicuity......Page 565
Further Reading......Page 566
Introduction......Page 568
Properties......Page 569
Effects on Private Car Use......Page 570
Car-Use Reduction and Information Technology......Page 571
Further Reading......Page 572
Introduction......Page 573
Multidimensional Conceptualizations......Page 574
Trust Measures......Page 575
The Benefits of Trust......Page 577
Collaboration and Cooperation within and between Organizations......Page 578
Fragility of Trust......Page 579
Implications for Practice......Page 580
Summary......Page 581
Further Reading......Page 582
Introduction......Page 583
Urban Living Conditions......Page 584
Specific Urban Behavior......Page 585
From Appropriation to Urban Identity......Page 586
The Sociophysical Interface......Page 587
People-Environment Congruity: Feeling at Home......Page 588
Neighborhood Revitalization......Page 589
Homogeneity and Legibility of the Urban Space......Page 590
Management of Urban Diversity......Page 591
Sustainable Cities......Page 592
Further Reading......Page 593
Introduction......Page 594
Levels of Analysis......Page 595
Individual-Level Dimensions of Values......Page 596
Attitudes and Behavior......Page 597
Culture-Level Dimensions of Values......Page 598
Relations among Culture-Level Dimensions......Page 599
Correlates of Culture-Level Values......Page 600
Further Reading......Page 601
Importance......Page 602
Skills Needed for Employment......Page 603
Assessment Models......Page 604
Conclusion......Page 605
Further Reading......Page 606
Glossary......Page 607
Interest as a Construct often Poorly Defined......Page 608
Homogeneous Content Scales......Page 609
UNIACT Interest Inventory......Page 610
Trends in Interest Measurement......Page 611
Further Reading......Page 612
Person-Environment Fit Model......Page 614
Vocational Personalities and Work Environments......Page 615
Vocational Personality Types......Page 616
Consistency and Congruence......Page 617
Growth......Page 618
Specification......Page 619
Establishment......Page 621
Consolidating......Page 622
Job Satisfaction......Page 623
Maintenance......Page 624
Disengagement......Page 625
Further Reading......Page 626
Glossary......Page 627
The Hierarchical Structure of Subjective Well-Being......Page 628
Problems with Self-Reports......Page 629
Demographic and Situational Characteristics......Page 630
Circumstances in Context......Page 631
Positive Social Outcomes......Page 632
Further Reading......Page 633
Introduction......Page 635
Reproduction-Oriented Limits......Page 636
Life Cycle: Differential Health Characteristics of Elderly Women......Page 637
Women’s Health on the Internet......Page 638
Further Reading......Page 640
Glossary......Page 641
Work Adjustment Assessment......Page 642
Further Reading......Page 643
Glossary......Page 644
Definitions of Work and Family......Page 645
Mechanisms Linking Work and Family......Page 646
Negative Effects of Work on Family Life......Page 647
Positive Effects of Work on Family Life......Page 648
Negative Effects of Family on Work Life......Page 649
Positive Effects of Family on Work Life......Page 650
Organizational Actions to Help Individuals Manage Work-Family Relationships......Page 651
Flexible Work Arrangements......Page 652
Individual Actions to Manage Work-Family Relationships......Page 653
Further Reading......Page 654
Introduction......Page 655
A Historical Perspective on Working Environments......Page 656
Some Recent Studies on Office Environments......Page 658
General Models Describing Environment-Behavior Relations in the Workplace......Page 659
Further Reading......Page 662
Needs......Page 664
Values......Page 665
Job Satisfaction......Page 666
Further Reading......Page 667
Work Values......Page 669
Validity......Page 670
Further Reading......Page 671
Glossary......Page 672
Individual-Level Perspective......Page 673
Intervention Approaches......Page 674
Intervention Approaches......Page 675
Intervention Approaches......Page 676
Further Reading......Page 677
Introduction......Page 678
Team Composition......Page 679
Team Development......Page 681
Team Processes and Performance......Page 682
Conclusion......Page 684
Further Reading......Page 685
Glossary......Page 686
Related Processes and Developmental Stages......Page 687
Primary School Grades......Page 688
Upper Elementary School Grades......Page 690
Role of Teacher Knowledge......Page 691
Further Reading......Page 692
The Context of Youth Employment......Page 694
Negative Effects of Youth Employment......Page 695
Further Reading......Page 696