Emerging Photovoltaic Materials: Silicon & Beyond

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 5
Copyright Page......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Preface......Page 23
Part 1: Silicon Photovoltaics......Page 29
1 Emergence of Continuous Czochralski (CCZ) Growth for Monocrystalline Silicon Photovoltaics......Page 31
1.1 Introduction......Page 32
1.1.1 The Czochralski (CZ) Process......Page 33
1.1.2 Continuous Czochralski Process (CCZ)......Page 39
1.2 Continuous Czochralski Process Implementations......Page 41
1.3.1 n-Type Mono-Si High-Efficiency Cells......Page 43
1.3.2 Gallium-Doped p-Type Silicon Solar Cells......Page 45
References......Page 47
2 Materials Chemistry and Physics for Low-Cost Silicon Photovoltaics......Page 51
2.1 Introduction......Page 52
2.2.1 Manufacturing of Silicon Solar Cell......Page 54
2.2.2 Efficiency Loss in Silicon Solar Cell......Page 57
2.2.3 New Strategies for the Silicon Solar Cell......Page 60
2.3.2 Upgraded Metallurgical-Grade Silicon......Page 61
2.3.2.1 Properties of Upgraded Metallurgical-Grade Silicon......Page 62
2.3.2.2 Production of Upgraded Metallurgical-Grade Silicon......Page 63
2.3.2.3 Development of Upgraded Metallurgical-Grade Silicon Solar Cells......Page 64
2.3.3.1 Crystal Growth......Page 65
2.3.3.2 Material Properties of High-Performance Multicrystalline Silicon......Page 67
2.3.3.3 Solar Cell Based on High-Performance Multicrystalline Silicon......Page 68
2.4.1.1 Passivated Emitter Solar Cell (PESC)......Page 69
2.4.1.2 Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell......Page 70
2.4.1.3 Passivated Emitter, Rear Locally Diffused Solar Cells......Page 71
2.4.1.4 Passivated Emitter, Rear Totally Diffused Solar Cells......Page 72
2.4.2 Surface Passivation......Page 73
2.5 Advanced n-Type Silicon......Page 74
2.5.1 Interdigitated Back Contact (IBC) Solar Cell......Page 75
2.5.2 Silicon Heterojunction (SHJ) Solar Cells......Page 78
2.5.2.1 The Device Structure and the Advantages of HIT Solar Cells......Page 79
2.5.2.2 Strategies of Achieving High-Efficiency HIT Solar Cell......Page 80
2.6 Conclusion......Page 81
References......Page 82
3 Recycling Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Modules......Page 89
3.1 Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment......Page 90
3.2 Photovoltaic Modules......Page 93
3.2.1 First-Generation Photovoltaic Modules......Page 94
3.3 Recyclability of Waste Photovoltaic Modules......Page 97
3.3.1 Frame......Page 98
3.3.2 Superstrate (Front Glass)......Page 99
3.3.3 Metallic Filaments (Busbars)......Page 100
3.3.4 Photovoltaic Cell......Page 101
3.3.5 Polymers......Page 102
3.3.6 Recyclability Summary......Page 103
3.4.1 Mechanical and Physical Processes......Page 104
3.4.1.2 Sieving......Page 105
3.4.1.3 Density Separation......Page 107
3.4.1.5 Electrostatic Separation......Page 110
3.4.2 Thermal Processes—Polymers......Page 112
3.4.3 Separation Using Organic Solvents......Page 114
3.4.5 Hydrometallurgy......Page 118
3.4.6 Electrometallurgy......Page 121
3.5 New Trends in the Recycling Processes......Page 122
References......Page 126
Part 2: Emerging Photovoltaic Materials......Page 131
4 Photovoltaics in Ferroelectric Materials: Origin, Challenges and Opportunities......Page 133
4.1.1.1 The p–n Junction......Page 134
4.1.1.2 The Shockley–Queisser Limit......Page 137
4.1.2.1 The Bulk Photovoltaic Effect......Page 138
4.1.2.2 Barrier Effects......Page 146
4.2 Opportunities and Challenges of Photoferroelectrics......Page 151
4.2.1.1 Switchability......Page 152
4.2.1.2 Influence of Defects......Page 153
4.2.2 The Bandgap Problem......Page 155
4.2.3 Application of Light-Induced Effects in Ferroelectrics: Beyond Solar Cells......Page 157
4.2.3.2 Photo-Induced Strain: Toward Optically Controlled Actuators......Page 158
4.2.3.3 Photochemistry for Clean Energy and Environment......Page 159
4.3 Conclusions......Page 161
References......Page 162
5 Tin-Based Novel Cubic Chalcogenides: A New Paradigm for Photovoltaic Research......Page 169
5.1 Introduction......Page 170
5.2.1 Application π-SnS in Solar Cells
......Page 173
5.2.2 Application of π-SnS in Optical Devices......Page 175
5.3.1 Application of π-SnSe in Solar Cells......Page 181
5.3.2 Application of π-SnSe in Optical Devices......Page 182
5.4 Cubic Tin Telluride (π-SnTe)......Page 185
5.4.1 Application of π-SnTe in Optical Devices......Page 186
Acknowledgement......Page 188
References......Page 189
6 Insights into the Photovoltaic and Photocatalytic Activity of Cu-, Al-, and Tm-Doped TiO2......Page 193
6.1 Introduction......Page 194
6.2.1 Experimental......Page 195
6.2.2 Computational Framework......Page 197
6.3 Cu-TiO2 Doping......Page 198
6.3.1 Photovoltaics of the DSSCs......Page 203
6.4 Al-TiO2 Doping......Page 205
6.5 Tm-TiO2 Doping......Page 209
6.5.1 Photovoltaic Characterization......Page 212
6.5.2 Photocatalytic Activity......Page 214
6.6 Conclusions......Page 215
References......Page 217
7 Theory of the Photovoltaic and Light-Induced Effects in Multiferroics......Page 223
7.1 Insufficiency of the Traditional Approach to the Bulk Photovoltaic Effect......Page 224
7.2 Theoretical Approach to the Photovoltaic and Light-Induced Effects......Page 225
7.3.1 Mean Symmetry of the Light Beam......Page 227
7.3.2.1 Achiral and Nonmagnetic Materials......Page 230
7.3.2.2 Chiral and Magnetic Materials......Page 233
7.4.1 External Selection......Page 234
7.4.2 Internal Selection......Page 236
7.5.1 Second-Order Photovoltaic Effect......Page 238
7.5.2 Photovoltaic Effects in LiNbO3......Page 240
7.5.3 Optical Rectification, Photomagnetic, and Photo-Toroidal First-Order Effects......Page 243
7.5.4 First-Order Photoelastic and Photo-Magnetoelectric Effects......Page 244
7.6.1 Magnetoelectric Effects in KBiFe2O5 in Absence of Illumination......Page 246
7.6.2 Photovoltaic and Magneto-Photovoltaic Effects in KBiFe2O5......Page 248
7.7.1 Photo-Magnetoelectric Effects......Page 252
7.7.2 Photovoltaic Effects in BiFeO3......Page 254
7.7.3 Magneto-Photovoltaic Effects in BiFeO3......Page 255
7.8 Photorefractive and Photo-Hall Effects in Tungsten Bronzes......Page 257
7.8.1 The Photorefractive Effect......Page 258
7.8.2 The Photo-Hall Effect......Page 259
7.9 Summary and Conclusion......Page 262
References......Page 263
8.1 Introduction......Page 267
8.2 Multication Film Growth and Analysis......Page 271
8.3 Structural Analysis......Page 272
8.4 Raman Spectra......Page 275
8.6 Optical Properties: UV-Vis Transmittance Spectra......Page 276
8.7 Electrical Properties......Page 281
8.8 Conclusion......Page 285
References......Page 286
Part 3: Perovskite Solar Cells......Page 289
9 Perovskite Solar Cells: Promises and Challenges......Page 291
9.1.1 The Share of Silicon Solar Cells and Thin Film Solar Cells in Photovoltaic Market......Page 292
9.1.2 The Bottleneck of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells and Organic Solar Cells......Page 294
9.1.3 From a Cost-Effective Alternative to the Highly Efficient Solution......Page 297
9.2 The Fast Development of PSCs......Page 298
9.2.1 The Fundamental Optoelectronic Properties of Hybrid Organic–Inorganic Lead Halide Perovskite Materials......Page 299
9.2.1.1 Optical Properties......Page 300
9.2.1.2 Electronic Properties......Page 304
9.2.2.1 Mixed Halides......Page 316
9.2.2.2 Multi-Cations......Page 320
9.2.3 Versatile Deposition Methods of Perovskite Film......Page 325
9.2.3.1 Solution-Processed Methods......Page 326
9.2.3.2 Vapor Deposition Methods......Page 334
9.2.4 Charge Selective Contacts in PSCs......Page 336
9.2.4.1 Electron Selective Contacts......Page 337
9.2.4.2 Hole Selective Contacts......Page 339
9.2.5.1 J–V curve......Page 343
9.2.5.2 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)......Page 344
9.2.6.2 The Role of Grain Boundaries......Page 346
9.2.6.3 Ion Migration and Hysteresis......Page 350
9.2.6.4 Interface/Bulk Defects and Passivation......Page 352
9.2.7.1 Structures of Perovskite Tandem Cells......Page 356
9.2.7.2 Transparent Contacts and Recombination Contacts......Page 358
9.3.1 Lead-Free PSCs......Page 359
9.3.2 Stable and Cheap Contact Materials......Page 364
9.3.3.1 Against Moisture......Page 366
9.3.3.2 Against UV Light......Page 367
9.3.3.3 Against Heat......Page 369
9.3.4 Large-Area Production of Highly Efficient PSCs......Page 370
References......Page 373
10 Organic–Inorganic Hybrid Perovskite, CH3NH3PbI3: Modifications in Pb Sites from Experimental and Theoretical Perspectives......Page 385
10.1 Introduction......Page 386
10.2.1.1 Experimental......Page 387
10.2.1.2 Computational Details......Page 389
10.2.2.1 XRD......Page 390
10.2.2.2 Diffuse Reflectance UV-Vis Spectroscopy......Page 393
10.2.2.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy......Page 394
10.2.2.4 SEM and Cathodoluminescence......Page 397
10.2.3.1 Structure and Local Geometry......Page 399
10.2.3.2 DOS and PDOS Analysis......Page 400
10.2.3.3 ELF Analysis......Page 404
10.3 High Doping on Pb Sites......Page 406
10.3.1.1 XRD......Page 407
10.3.1.2 Diffuse Reflectance UV-Vis Spectroscopy......Page 412
10.3.1.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy......Page 414
10.3.2.1 Structure and Local Geometry......Page 416
10.3.2.2 Electron Localization Function......Page 419
10.3.2.3 DOS and PDOS Analysis......Page 421
References......Page 425
Part 4: Organic Solar Cells......Page 429
11 Increasing the Dielectric Constant of Organic Materials for Photovoltaics......Page 431
11.1 Introduction......Page 432
11.2.1 Methodology of Dielectric Constant Measurement......Page 443
11.2.2 High Dielectric Constant Materials......Page 449
11.2.2.1 High Dielectric Constant Donor Materials......Page 450
11.2.2.2 High Dielectric Constant Acceptor Materials......Page 457
11.3 Conclusions and Outlook......Page 463
References......Page 464
12 Recent Developments in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells and Potential Applications......Page 471
12.1 Solar Energy and Solar Cells......Page 472
12.2.1.2 Polycrystalline Silicon Based Solar Cells......Page 473
12.2.2.1 Amorphous Silicon (a-Si)-Based Solar Cells......Page 475
12.2.2.3 Copper Indium Diselenide (CuInSe2, or CIS)-Based Solar Cells......Page 476
12.2.3.2 Organic Solar Cells......Page 477
12.3 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs)......Page 478
12.4 Operation of DSSCs......Page 480
12.4.1 Working System of DSSCs......Page 482
12.5 Fabrication of DSSCs......Page 483
12.5.2 Film Deposition on Substrate......Page 484
12.5.2.1 Preparation of TiO2 Paste......Page 487
12.5.4 Preparation of Counter Electrode......Page 488
12.6.1 Transparent Conducting Substrate......Page 489
12.6.2.1 Titanium Oxide (TiO2)......Page 490
12.6.2.2 Zinc Oxide (ZnO)......Page 491
12.6.2.3 Niobium Pentoxide (Nb2O5)......Page 492
12.6.2.5 Other Metal Oxides......Page 493
12.6.3 Photosensitizers......Page 494
12.6.3.1 Metal Complexes as Sensitizers......Page 495
12.6.4 Electrolytes......Page 499
12.6.4.1 Liquid Electrolytes......Page 500
12.6.4.2 Solid-State Electrolytes......Page 501
12.6.5.2 Carbon Materials......Page 502
12.7 Advantages and Applications of DSSC......Page 503
12.9 Conclusions......Page 504
References......Page 505
13.1 Introduction......Page 515
13.2 Ultraviolet Photoemission Spectroscopy......Page 518
13.3.1 Schottky Barrier, Interfacial Dipole, and Slope Parameter......Page 521
13.3.2 Interfacial Dipole Theory......Page 523
13.3.3 Mapping Energy Level Alignment at Heterojunction Interface......Page 525
13.4.1 Two-Diode Model......Page 527
13.4.2 Quasi Fermi Level Model......Page 529
13.4.3 Chemical Equilibrium Model......Page 531
13.4.4 Kinetic Hopping Model......Page 532
References......Page 536
14 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposited Materials and Organic Semiconductors in Photovoltaic Devices......Page 539
14.1 Introduction......Page 540
14.2.1 Fabrication of PECVD Materials......Page 541
14.2.2 Fabrication of Organic Materials......Page 542
14.2.4 Characterization of Materials......Page 544
14.2.5 Characterization of Device Structures......Page 549
14.3.1 Structure and Composition......Page 550
14.3.2 Optical Properties......Page 554
14.3.3 Electrical Properties......Page 557
14.4.1 Devices Based on PECVD Materials......Page 565
14.4.2 Devices Based on Organic Materials......Page 566
14.4.3 Hybrid Devices Based on PECVD-Polymer Materials......Page 568
14.4.4 Hybrid Devices Using Crystalline Semicinductors, Non-Crystalline PECVD, and Organic Materials (HJT-OS Structures)......Page 571
References......Page 574
Part 5: Nano-Photovoltaics......Page 579
15 Use of Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) in Third-Generation Solar Cells......Page 581
15.1.2 Categories of Photovoltaic Devices and Their Development......Page 582
15.3.1 ITO and FTO......Page 584
15.3.2 CNTs for TCEs......Page 585
15.4.1 CNTs-TCFs for DSSCs......Page 591
15.4.2.1 Nanostructured TiO2 Materials......Page 593
15.4.2.2 Semiconducting Layers with CNTs......Page 594
15.4.3.1 Platinum (Pt) and Other Catalysts......Page 598
15.5 CNTs in Perovskite Solar Cells......Page 600
15.6.1 Working Mechanism......Page 603
15.6.2 Development of Si-CNT Devices......Page 604
15.6.3 Origin of Photocurrent......Page 605
15.6.4 Effect of the Number of CNT Walls......Page 606
15.6.6 Effect of CNT Alignment in the Electrode......Page 607
15.6.8 Effect of Doping......Page 608
15.6.9 Intentional Addition of Silicon Oxide Layer......Page 609
15.6.10 Enhancement of Light Absorption......Page 610
15.6.12 Discussion......Page 612
15.7 Outlook and Conclusion......Page 613
References......Page 614
16 Quantum Dot Solar Cells......Page 639
16.2.1 Fundamental Concepts......Page 640
16.2.2 Size-Dependent Quantum Confinement Effect......Page 641
16.2.3 Multiple Exciton Generation Effect......Page 642
16.2.4 The Kondo Effect......Page 644
16.2.5 Applications......Page 645
16.3.1 Hot Injection......Page 646
16.3.1.1 Theoretical Evaluation of Nucleation and Growth......Page 647
16.3.1.2 Influence Factors......Page 649
16.3.1.3 Features......Page 651
16.3.2 Chemical Bath Deposition......Page 652
16.3.2.2 Influence Factors......Page 653
16.3.2.3 Features......Page 655
16.3.3 Successive Ionic Layer Adsorption and Reaction......Page 656
16.3.3.1 Theoretical Evaluation of SILAR Method......Page 657
16.3.3.2 Influence Factors......Page 658
16.3.3.3 Features......Page 660
16.4.1.1 Device Structure......Page 661
16.4.1.3 Materials Selection......Page 663
16.4.1.4 Photovoltaic Performance......Page 664
16.4.2.1 Device Structure......Page 665
16.4.2.2 Preparation Route......Page 666
16.4.2.3 Materials Selection......Page 667
16.4.2.4 Photovoltaic Performance......Page 668
16.4.3.1 Device Structure......Page 669
16.4.3.2 Preparation Route......Page 670
16.4.3.3 Materials Selection......Page 671
16.4.3.4 Photovoltaic Performance......Page 672
16.5 Challenges and Perspectives......Page 673
References......Page 674
17 Near-Infrared Responsive Quantum Dot Photovoltaics: Progress, Challenges, and Perspectives......Page 687
17.1 Introduction......Page 688
17.2.1 Multiple Exciton Generation......Page 690
17.2.2 Quantum Size Effect......Page 691
17.2.3 Other Features......Page 692
17.3.1 In Situ Strategy......Page 693
17.3.2 Ex Situ Strategy......Page 694
17.3.3 A Comparison between In Situ and Ex Situ......Page 695
17.4.1 Binary Lead Chalcogenides......Page 697
17.4.2 Binary Silver Chalcogenides......Page 702
17.4.3 Ternary Indium-Based Chalcogenides......Page 704
17.4.4 Ternary and Quaternary Alloyed Compounds......Page 706
17.5.1.1 Nanophotonic Structuring......Page 710
17.5.1.2 Plasmonic Enhancement......Page 711
17.5.2.1 Band Structure Tailoring......Page 712
17.5.2.2 Surface Engineering......Page 715
17.6 New Concept Solar Cells......Page 720
17.6.1 Multiple-Junction CQD Solar Cells......Page 721
17.6.3 Semitransparent Solar Cells......Page 722
17.6.4 QD/Perovskite Hybrid Solar Cells......Page 724
17.7 Conclusions and Perspectives......Page 727
References......Page 729
Part 6: Concentrator Photovoltaics and Analysis Models......Page 747
18 Dense-Array Concentrator Photovoltaic System......Page 749
18.2 Primary Concentrator: Non-Imaging Dish Concentrator......Page 750
18.2.1 Geometry of Non-Imaging Dish Concentrator (NIDC)......Page 751
18.2.2 Methodology of Designing NIDC Geometry......Page 754
18.2.3 Coordinate Transformation of Facet Mirror......Page 756
18.2.4 Computational Algorithm......Page 758
18.3 Secondary Concentrator: An Array of Crossed Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CCPC) Lenses......Page 761
18.4 Concentrator Photovoltaic Module......Page 768
18.5 Prototype of Dense-Array Concentrator Photovoltaic System (DACPV)......Page 770
18.6 Optical Efficiency of the CCPC Lens......Page 772
18.7 Experimental Study of Electrical Performance......Page 778
18.7.1 Current Measurement Circuit......Page 782
18.8 Cost Estimation of the Dense-Array Concentrator Photovoltaic System Using Two-Stage Non-Imaging Concentrators......Page 785
18.9 Conclusion......Page 786
Acknowledgments......Page 787
References......Page 788
19 Solar Radiation Analysis Model and PVsyst Simulation for Photovoltaic System Design......Page 791
19.1.1 Solar Energy in Turkey......Page 792
19.1.2 Climate, Solar Energy Potential, and Electric Production in Erzincan......Page 794
19.2.1.2 Daily Diffuse Solar Radiation......Page 796
19.2.1.4 Momentary Diffuse and Direct Solar Radiation......Page 797
19.2.2.2 Momentary Diffuse Solar Radiation......Page 798
19.2.3 Data Analysis and Discussion......Page 799
19.3.1 Methodology......Page 805
19.3.2 Findings Obtained with PVsyst Simulation......Page 809
19.4 Conclusions......Page 811
References......Page 812
Index......Page 815
EULA......Page 826