Emerging and Reemerging Viral Pathogens: Volume 2: Applied Virology Approaches Related to Human, Animal and Environmental Pathogens

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EMERGING AND
REEMERGING VIRAL
PATHOGENS
Volume 2: Applied Virology
Approaches Related to Human,
Animal and Environmental Pathogens
Copyright
List of Contributors
Editor Biography
Preface
Editorial Management Committees
	Editorial Management Committee
	Assistance Support Management
Editorial
Graphical Abstract
1 Phenomena of Emergences and Reemergences of the Diseases: Evolution of the Concepts, Risk Factors, and State of the Art
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further Reading
2 Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats/Cas9 Genome Editing Technology Against Emerging and Reemerging ...
	Introduction
	Hepatitis B Virus
	Oncogenic Human Papillomaviruses 16 and 18
	Epstein–Barr Virus
	Human Immunodeficiency Virus
	Conclusion
	References
3 Infectious Bronchitis Virus in Poultry: Molecular Epidemiology and Factors Leading to the Emergence and Reemergence of No...
	Introduction
	Epidemiology of Infectious Bronchitis Virus
		Infectious Bronchitis Virus Types in the United States
		Infectious Bronchitis Virus Types in South America
		Infectious Bronchitis Virus Types in Europe
		Infectious Bronchitis Virus Types in Africa
	Factors Leading to the Emergence of New Strains of Infectious Bronchitis Virus
	Diagnosis Techniques of the Emerging Strains of Infectious Bronchitis Virus
		Sampling
		Virus Isolation
		Methods for Identification
		Treatment and Vaccination
			Live Attenuated Vaccine
			Inactivated or Killed Vaccines
			Recombinant Vaccines
	Conclusion
	References
	Further Reading
4 Molecular Modeling of Major Structural Protein Genes of Avian Coronavirus: Infectious Bronchitis Virus Mass H120 and Ital...
	Introduction
	Material and Methods
		Sequence and Structural Data
	Modeling of the Hypervariable Region of S1 Spicule Proteins
	Evaluation and Refinement of the Three-Dimensional Model
	Results
	Modeling of the Hypervariable Region of S1 Spicule Proteins
		Spatial Conformation of the S1 Structure in Three-Dimensional
	Stability of the Structure of the S1 Protein in Three-Dimensional
	Evaluation of the Quality of the Three-Dimensional Model and Prediction of Antigenic Sites
		Evaluation of the Quality of the Three-Dimensional Model
	Prediction of Antigenic Sites
	Discussion
	Conclusion
	Competing Interests
	References
5 Biological Databases in Virology
	Introduction
	Relational Database Model
	Characteristics of a Relational Table
	Keys
	National Centre for Biotechnology Information Viral Genome Resources
	ViralZone
	Virus Pathogen Database and Analysis Resource
	Virus Pathogen Database and Analysis Resource Analysis and Visualization Tool
	Viral Protein Structure Resource
	Virus–Host Database
	Descriptions of Plant Viruses
	References
6 Involvement and Roles of Long Noncoding RNAs in the Molecular Mechanisms of Emerging and Reemerging Viral Infections
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Long Noncoding RNAs in Virus Biology: Examples of Emerging Viral Pathogens
	Long Noncoding RNAs Contribute to Viral Pathogenicity in Respiratory Diseases
	Long Noncoding RNAs Regulate Human Immunodeficiency Virus Replication and Maintain its Latency
	Long Noncoding RNAs in Herpesviruses Latent to Lytic Cycle Transition
	Long Noncoding RNAs Regulate the Transition From Latent to Lytic Phase in Kaposi’s Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus Infection
	Long Noncoding RNAs and Epstein–Barr Virus
	Other Examples
	Long Noncoding RNAs in Viral–Host Interaction
	Immune Response Employs Long Noncoding RNAs Against Viruses
	Long Noncoding RNAs Modulate Viral Evasion of Immunity
	Long Noncoding RNAs as New Candidates for Viral Biomarker and Therapy
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	Conflict of Interest
	References
7 Scientific Advances in the Diagnosis of Emerging and Reemerging Viral Human Pathogens
	Abbreviations
	Clinical Application of Molecular Methods
	First-Time Diagnosis
	Examples of Molecular Detection of Viral Emerging and Reemerging Diseases
		Variola Virus
		West Nile Virus
		SARS CoV
	Disease Prognosis
	Diagnosis by Microarrays
	Molecular Diagnosis and Latest Generation Surveillance Systems
	Nanotechnology Diagnosis
		Array Based on Nanotechnology
		Nanoparticles
		Nanobiosensors
		Cantilever Biosensors (Cantilever)
		Viral Nanobiosensors
	MicroRNAs and Emerging Viral Infections
		History of MicroRNA
		Structure and Biogenesis
		MicroRNAs in Emerging Disease
		Applications of MicroRNAs in the Treatment of Infectious Diseases
		Applications of MicroRNAs as Biomarkers of Infectious Disease
		Examples of MicroRNAs in Diagnosis of Emerging Diseases
			Case of H7N9
			Ebola Virus
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
8 Introduction to Computational and Bioinformatics Tools in Virology
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	The First Question Asked, What are Bioinformatics, Chemoinformatics, and Computational Biology?
	Biomathematics and Computational Biology
		Mathematics and Virology
	Database and Informatics
		Description of Databases
		The Most Common Types of Biological Data
		Access to Database
	Alignment and Phylogeny
		Local and Global Alignments
	Introduction to Phylogenetic Analysis
		Definitions and Terminology
	Bayesian and Maximum Likelihood of Phylogeny
	Phylodynamics
	Gene Prediction Methods
	Introduction to Molecular Modeling
	Protein Structure Modeling and Prediction
	Molecular Dynamics and Force Fields
	Molecular Docking
	References
9 Designing Antiviral Substances Targeting the Ebola Virus Viral Protein 24
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Ebola Virus—Structure and Function
	Structure and Function of the Viral Protein 24
	Energetics of Viral Protein 24: Karyopherin α5 Complex
	Design of Peptides Interfering Viral Protein 24–Karyopherin α Interaction
	Small Molecules as Inhibitors of Viral Protein 24
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
10 Application of Nanodiagnostics in Viral Infectious Diseases
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Conventional Diagnosis for Infectious Diseases and Limitations
	Application of Nanotechnology in Infectious Disease
		Nanoparticle-Based Diagnosis for Infectious Diseases
		Nanodevice-Based Diagnosis for Infectious Diseases
		Nanobiosensors
			Label-Free Biosensors
			Optical Transducer
			Electrical Transducer
			Mechanical Transducer
				Labeled Biosensors
			Biobarcode
			Metal Nanoparticles
			Magnetic Nanoparticles
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
11 Baculovirus-Derived Vectors for Immunization and Therapeutic Applications
	Abbreviation
	Biology of Baculoviruses
	Genetic Engineering of Baculoviruses
	Expression of Heterologous Proteins for Diagnosis and Immunization
	The Baculovirus Expression Vector System for the Generation of Virus-Like Particles
	Baculovirus Surface Display
	Baculovirus Expression Vector System Platform for the Production of Adeno-Associated Viruses
	Baculoviruses as Mammalian Transduction Vectors
	Discussion
	References
	Further Reading
12 Recombinant Veterinary Vaccines Against Rabies: State of Art and Perspectives
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Viral-Vectored Vaccines Against Rabies
		Viral-Vectored Vaccines for Companion Animals
		Rabies in Wildlife: Control Strategies
		Rabies Vaccines for Livestock
	Concluding Remarks
	References
13 Epidemiology and Ecology of Emerging Viruses in Two Freshwater Lakes of the Northern Hemisphere
	Introduction
	Viral Community Structure
		Viral Pathogens
			Adenoviruses
			Noroviruses
			Other Human Enteroviruses
		Cyanophages
		Phycodnaviruses
			Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia Virus
		Giant Viruses
		Other Viruses
	Sources of Pathogenic Viruses
	Current Approaches for the Identification of Pathogens, Their Limitations and Scope
	Summary and Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
14 Global Epidemiology and Genetic Variability of Rabies Viruses
	Introduction
	Etiology and Classification of Rabies Viruses
	Structure of the Rabies Virus
	Pathogenesis of Rabies
		Inoculation of the Virus to Tissues
		Migration of the Virus From the Periphery to the Central Nervous System
		Invasion of the Central Nervous System
		Centrifugal Release From the Central Nervous System
	Virulence Factors of Rabies Virus
	Human Antirabies Vaccines
		Nerve Tissue-Based Vaccines
		Cell-Culture Vaccines and Embryonated Egg-Based Rabies Vaccines
	Veterinary Antirabies Vaccines
		Injectable Vaccines
			Live Modified Injectable Vaccines
			Inactivated (Monovalent or Multivalent) Injectable Vaccines
			Recombinant Vectorized (Monovalent or Multivalent) Injectable Vaccines
			Control of Inactivated Vaccines
		Oral Vaccines
			Street Alabama Dufferin Vaccine Strains
			Monoclonal Antibody Selected Vaccine Strains
			Recombinant Live Vaccines
			Quality Criteria for Oral Rabies Vaccines
		DNA Vaccines
	References
15 Reemerging Virus: Case of Norovirus
	Introduction
	Epidemiology
	Norovirus in Morocco
	Norovirus in Spain
	Norovirus in India
	Norovirus in Indonesia
	Norovirus in Australia
	Norovirus in Argentina
	Norovirus and Reemerging Strains
	Norovirus Vaccine
	References
16 Risk Assessment and Biosecurity Considerations in Control of Emergent Plant Viruses
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Pepino Mosaic Virus: Review
	Pest Risk Assessment of Biological and Economic Impact
		Definitions
		Pest Risk Analysis
			Stage 1: Initiation
			Stage 2: Risk Assessment
				Step 1: Categorization
				Step 2: Assessment of Pest Entry, Establishment, and Spread
				Step 3: Assessment of Potential Consequences
			Stage 3: Risk Management
			Biological Risk Related to the Viral Pathogen: Pepino Mosaic Virus
				Stage 1: Initiation
				Stage 2: Risk Assessment of Pepino Mosaic Virus
				Stage 3: Risk Management of Pepino Mosaic Virus
		Management of Pepino Mosaic Virus
			Regulatory Framework
			Hygiene Measures
			Cross-Protection
			Genetic Resistance
			Phytosanitary Control
	Biological Risk Related to Plant Waste
	Biosafety Issues Associated With Virus-Resistant Transgenic Plants
	Agroterrorism
	Conclusion
	References
	Further Reading
17 Human Immunodeficiency Virus as Emergent Viral Infection With the Presence of the Immune Adaptive Response: Viral Dynamics
	Introduction
	Mathematical Analysis of the Basic Model
		Disease-Free and Endemic Equilibria
		Convergence Toward the Steady States
	Effect of Cytotoxic T-Lymphocytes on the Infection Dynamics
		Disease-Free and Endemic Equilibria
		Numerical Computations
	Analysis of the Adaptive Immune Response Effect
		Disease-Free and Endemic Equilibria
		Numerical Simulations
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
18 Mathematical Modeling in Virology
	Introduction
	Modeling With Ordinary Differential Equations
	Modeling With Delay Differential Equations
	Modeling With Partial Differential Equations
	Conclusions
	References
Index
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