Emerging and Reemerging Viral Pathogens: Fundamental and Basic Virology Aspects of Human, Animal and Plant Pathogens

Cover
EMERGING AND
REEMERGING VIRAL
PATHOGENS
Volume 1: Fundamental and Basic
Virology Aspects of Human, Animal
and Plant Pathogens
Copyright
List of Contributors
Editor Biography
Preface
Editorial Management Committees
	Editorial Management Committee
	Assistance Support Management
Editorial
Graphical Abstract
1 General Introduction to Volume 1 Emergent and Reemergent Viruses: Modern Important Issues
	Definition of Virus Comes to Ages
	Bioinformatics of Virology and Viral-Genome Databases
	Tumors and Viruses Renewable Relations
	Waterborne and Foodborne Viruses
	Dangerous Viruses in Africa
	Recent Advances Discovery of Emergent and Reemergent Virus
	References
2 Human Reemerging Arboviral Diseases of the Late 21st Century: From Ecological-Epidemiology to Control Strategies
	Introduction
	Ecology of Human Arboviruses
	Ecologic-Epidemiology of Human Arboviruses
		Dengue Virus Infections
		West Nile Virus Diseases
		Zika Virus Disease
		Yellow Fever
		Chikungunya
		Crimean–Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus
	Prevention and Control Strategies of Reemergent Arboviruses Infections
		Primary Putative Measures for Preventing the Occurrence of Crimean–Congo Hemorrhagic Fever
	Conclusion
	Conflict of Interest
	Contribution of Authors
	References
	Further Reading
3 Viral Emerging Pathogen Evolution
	Introduction
	Eons, Eras, and Geological Periods
	Viruses and Evolution
	Virus Evolution and the Immune System
	Relations Between Viruses and Insects
	Conclusions
	References
	Further Reading
4 Human Viruses: Emergence and Evolution
	Introduction
	Origin
	Evolution and Adaptation to the Human Host
	Evolutionary Drivers
	Emergence as a Biological Process
		Nonhuman Reservoirs
		Pathogen Pyramid
		Drivers of Emergence
		Species Jumps
		Cell Receptor Usage and Host Range
	Conclusions and Future Prospects
	Acknowledgments
	References
5 The Arenaviridae
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Epidemiological and Ecological Features
	Structural Organization and Replication
		Host Receptor Usage
	Pathobiology of Pathogenic Arenaviruses
	Therapeutics and Prophylaxis
		Antiviral Therapies
		Prophylaxis
	Conclusion
	References
	Further Reading
6 Ecoepidemiology of Alphaviruses and Flaviviruses
	Introduction
		Factors That Favor Zoonoses and Diseases Transmitted by Vectors
		Arbovirus Cycles
		Vectors
		Influence of Environmental, Social, and Plant Coverage Variables in Arbovirosis
		Temperature
		Precipitation
		Altitude
		Social Factors, Urbanization, Displacement, Travel, and Vector Increase
		Pathophysiology of Arboviruses
	Ecopidemiology of Flavivirus
		Generalities of Flavivirus
	Ecoepidemiology of Alphavirus
		Generalities of Alphaviruses
		Evidence of Alphaviruses in Bats of America
	Surveillance Mode
	Treatment
		Control Measures for Arboviruses
	Conclusion
	References
7 Coronaviridae: 100,000 Years of Emergence and Reemergence
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Emergent and Reemerging Viral Infections
	Taxonomy
		Nidovirales
		Coronaviridae
	Genomic Organization and Proteomics of Coronaviridae
		Gene Responsible for Pathogenicity
		Viral Cycle of Coronaviridae
	Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus
		The Genomic and Proteomic Construction
	Infectious Bronchitis Virus
		Isolation and Diagnostic of Infectious Bronchitis Virus
			Isolation of Infectious Bronchitis Virus From Eggs
			Tracheal Culture
	Interspieces Viral Transmission
	References
	Further Reading
8 The Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus: An Emerging Virus of Global Threat
	Abbreviations
	Background and Overview
		The Virus and Its Replication
		Epidemiology and Geographic Distribution
		Source of Infection and Transmission
		Clinical Features and Diagnosis
		Treatment and Prevention
	References
9 Hepatitis C Virus and Human Herpesvirus 8: Immunological Response, Modification of Cell Metabolism, and Association With ...
	Abbreviations
	Latent-Persistent Viral Infections and Cell Metabolism
	Virus Infections and Diabetes
	Hepatitis C Virus and Diabetes Mellitus
	Mechanisms of Hepatitis C Virus Interference With Insulin Signaling
	Human Herpesvirus 8 Infection and Cell Metabolism
	Human Herpesvirus 8 Infection, Immunological Response, and Diabetes
	Conclusions and Future Prospects
	Acknowledgments
	Conflict of Interest
	Contribution of Authors
	References
	Further Reading
10 Human Immunodeficiency Virus: A Brief Review
	Introduction
	History
	The Virus
	Genetic Diversity and Classification
	Molecular Epidemiology
	Modes and Routes of Transmission
	Immunovirological Monitoring
	Immunological Aspects
	Resistance to ARVs
	Vaccines
	Conclusion
	References
	Further Reading
11 Ebola and Marburg Virus: A Brief Review
	Introduction
	History
		Marburg Virus
		Ebola Virus
	Viruses
	Molecular Epidemiology
	Pathology
	Phases of Preparation and Response to the Epidemic
	Support and Security Measures
	Treatment and Vaccine Developments
	Conclusion
	References
	Further Reading
12 Undifferentiated Tropical Viral Fevers in Latin America
	Introduction
	References
	Further Reading
13 Chikungunya Virus: A Brief Review of the Thematic
	Introduction
	Emerging and Reemerging Factors for Viral Diseases in Africa
	Chikungunya Fever: A Brief History and Geographical Distribution
	Chikungunya Virus Taxonomy, Structure, and Genome Organization
	Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations
	Laboratory Diagnosis
	Clinical Management and Preventive Methods
	Antiviral Vaccine Approach
	Conclusion
	References
14 Cytomegalovirus: An Oncomodulator and Therapeutic Target in Glioma Management
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Human Cytomegalovirus Classification
	Human Cytomegalovirus Structure and Genome Organization
	Human Cytomegalovirus Viral Cycle
	Human Cytomegalovirus Epidemiology
	Human Cytomegalovirus Physiopathology
	Human Cytomegalovirus and Pathologies
		Human Cytomegalovirus and Glioma
			Human Cytomegalovirus as Oncomodulator
				Proliferation and Cell Survival
				Migration of Tumor Cells and Invasion
			Immune Escape
			Angiogenesis
			Induction to Tumor Stem Cells and Gliomagenesis
	Cytomegalovirus as a Therapeutic Target in the Management of Malignant Gliomas
	Conclusion
	References
15 Orthobunyavirus Family of Emerging Viruses
	Abbreviation
	Introduction
		Genomic and Proteomic Constructions
		Rare’s Emergency Virus
			Inkoo Virus and Chatanga Virus
			Batai Virus
			Snowshoe Hare Virus
	References
16 Dengue Virus
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Evolution and Discovery of Dengue Virus
	Evolution and Spread of Dengue Virus Vector
		Evolution and Spread of Vector
		Mosquito Transmission of Dengue Viruses
		Factors Responsible for the Global Resurgence of Dengue
	Economic Burden
	Taxonomy and Evolutionary Relationship of Dengue With Other Flaviviruses
	Genus-Level Morphological and Genomic Properties
	Replication Strategy of Flavivirus
	Molecular Architecture of Dengue Virus
	Overview of the Viral Life Cycle
		Genomic Structure of Dengue Virus
		5′ Untranslated Region
		3′ Untranslated Region
	Viral Replication
		Nonstructural Proteins
		Structural Proteins
		Pathogenesis of Dengue
			Viral Factors
			Host Factors
		Host Immune Response
			Antibody Response in Primary and Secondary Infection
			T-Cell Responses in Dengue Infection
			T-Cell Responses in Secondary Dengue Infection
			Innate Immune Responses in Dengue Virus Infection
		Clinical Features of Dengue
			Symptomatic Dengue
			Febrile Phase—Commonly Lasts for 3–7 Days
			Critical Phase
				Hemorrhagic Manifestation
				Hematological Abnormalities
			Recovery Phase
				Recovery Phase Is Around Days 6–8 of Illness
			Factors Influencing Dengue Disease Severity
		Complications
			Skin
			Eye
			Gastrointestinal Tract
			Kidney and Genitourinary Tract
			Heart
		Laboratory Diagnosis
		Acute Dengue Diagnosis
		Molecular Diagnosis of Dengue
		Antigen Detection
		Early and Late Convalescent Diagnosis
		Viral Isolation and Identification
			Mouse Inoculation
		Management of Dengue
		Management During the Critical Phase
		Prevention and Control
			Dengue Vector Control
		Biological Control
		Antidengue Drug Development
		Polyprotein Processing and Translation Inhibitors
		Dengue Vaccine Development
			Yellow Fever Virus as Molecular Backbone Acambis/Sanofi Pasteur Vaccine (CYD)
			Takeda/Inviragen/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Vaccine
			NIH Vaccine
			Tetravalent NIH Vaccine
			Live-Attenuated Vaccines: US FDA Vaccine
			University of Hawaii Vaccine
			Vectored Vaccines
				Measles Virus as Vector
				Adenovirus as Vector
				Alphavirus Vector
			Walter Reed Army Institute of Research Vaccine
			Recombinant Subunit Vaccines
			DNA Vaccines
	References
17 Oncoviruses: Viruses Role in Common Human Tumors
	Human Papilloma Virus Role in Cervical Cancer
	Human Papilloma Virus and Other Congenital Tumors
	Human Papilloma Virus Oncogenesis Mechanism
	Human Immunodeficiency Virus Patients and Cervical Cancer Risk
	Viruses Interfere Lymphomas Tumors: Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus-1, Epstein–Barr Virus, Human Immunodeficiency Virus, He...
	Simian Virus Role in Bone, Brain, and Mesothelioma Tumors
	Epstein–Barr Virus and Stomach Cancer
	Human Merkel Cell Polyomavirus and Merkel Cell Carcinoma
	Human Hepatitis Viruses Role in Liver Tumors
	Viruses’ Relations With Lung Cancer
	Conclusion
	References
18 Oncogenic Viruses
	Introduction, Historical Aspect, and Classification
	Historical Timeline of Discovery
		Classification of Oncogenic Viruses
	General Principles of Viral Oncogenic Mechanisms
	Mechanisms of Viral Oncogenesis
		Direct and Indirect Viral Carcinogenesis
			Perturbation of Signaling Pathways
			Mimicking the Signaling Ligands
	Human Oncogenic Viruses and Associated Cancers
		DNA Oncogenic Viruses Hepatitis B Virus
		Hepatitis B Virus Mutants and Genotypes
		Herpes Simplex Virus
	Cytomegalovirus
		Influence of Human Cytomegalovirus on Cancer Cell Apoptosis
	Papillomaviruses
	RNA Oncogenic Viruses
		Polyomaviruses
		Hepatitis C Virus
	Human T-Lymphotropic Virus
	Opportunities and Future Directions
		Molecular Mechanisms of Viral Oncogenesis
	References
	Further Reading
19 Noroviruses, Sapoviruses, and Aichi Viruses Emergence in Wastewater Associated With Viral Pandemic Gastroenteritis
	Introduction
		Virological Characteristics of Noroviruses, Sapoviruses, and Aichi Viruses
			History
				Noroviruses
				Sapoviruses
				Aichi Viruses
			Taxonomy
				Noroviruses and Sapoviruses
				Aichi Viruses
			Structure
				Noroviruses and Sapoviruses
				Aichi Viruses
			Genomic Organization
				Noroviruses
				Sapoviruses
				Aichi Viruses
			Replication Cycle
				Noroviruses and Sapoviruses
				Aichi Viruses
			Pathogenesis
				Noroviruses and Sapoviruses
			Clinical Symptoms
				Noroviruses and Sapoviruses
			Immune Responses
				Noroviruses and Sapoviruses
			Transmission Mode
			Diagnosis
			Genetic Diversity
				Noroviruses and Sapoviruses
			Epidemiology
				Noroviruses and Sapoviruses
				Aichi Viruses
			Prevention, Treatment, and Vaccination
				Noroviruses and Sapoviruses
				Aichi Viruses
		Emergent of Noroviruses, Sapoviruses, Aichi Viruses, and Waterborne Diseases
			Viral Risk Assessment
			Noroviruses
			Sapoviruses
			Aichi Viruses
	Conclusion
	References
	Further Reading
20 Rotaviruses, Astroviruses, and Adenoviruses Emergence and Circulation in Wastewater Causing Acute Viral Gastroenteritis
	Introduction
	Virological Characteristics of Rotaviruses, Human Astroviruses, and Human Adenoviruses
		History
			Rotaviruses
			Human Astroviruses
			Human Adenoviruses
		Taxonomy
			Rotaviruses
			Human Astroviruses
			Human Adenoviruses
		Structure
			Rotaviruses
			Human Astroviruses
			Human Adenoviruses
		Genomic Organization
			Rotaviruses
			Human Astroviruses
			Human Adenoviruses
		Replication Cycle
			Rotavirus A
			Human Astroviruses
			Human Adenoviruses
		Pathogenesis
			Rotaviruses
			Human Astroviruses
			Human Adenoviruses
		Clinical Symptoms
			Rotaviruses
			Human Astroviruses
			Human Adenoviruses
		Immune Responses
			Rotaviruses
			Human Astroviruses
			Human Adenoviruses
		Transmission Mode
		Diagnosis
		Genetic Diversity
			Rotavirus A
			Human Astroviruses
			Human Adenoviruses
		Epidemiology
			Rotavirus A
			Human Astroviruses
			Human Adenoviruses
		Prevention, Treatment, and Vaccination
			Rotaviruses
			Human Astroviruses and Human Adenoviruses
	Emergent Rotaviruses, Astroviruses, Adenoviruses, and Waterborne Diseases
		Rotaviruses
		Astroviruses
		Adenoviruses
	Conclusion
	References
	Further Reading
21 Prion Diseases: Conformational Changes of a Protein Create an Unconventional Infectious Agent
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	The Nature of the Unconventional Transmissible Agent
	Different Types of Pathological Prion Protein Deposits
	Prion Types and Prion Strains
	Prion Types Determine the Clinical Phenotype
	Prion Types Exist Across the Species
	The Transmission Route-Dependent Susceptibility Is Influenced by Prion Types
	Human Risk of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy Is Not a Primary but Secondary Transmission
	References
22 Vitamin D Immunomodulatory Role in Chronic and Acute Viral Diseases
	Introduction
	Hepatitis C Virus
		Classification
		Transmission Mechanisms
		Symptoms
		Virological Diagnosis
		Vitamin D and Hepatitis C Viruses
	Human Immunodeficiency Virus
		Classification
		Transmission Mechanisms
		Symptoms
		Virological Diagnosis
		Vitamin D and Human Immunodeficiency Virus
	Influenza Virus
		Classification
		Transmission Mechanisms
		Symptoms
		Virological Diagnosis
		Vitamin D and Influenza Virus
	Vitamin D History
		Vitamin D Chemical Structure and Requirements
			Chemical Structure
			Vitamin D Requirements
		Vitamin D Biochemistry
			Metabolism
				Origins of Vitamin D
				Vitamin D Activation
					The Hepatic Step: Synthesis of 25(OH)D3
					The Kidney Step
				Vitamin D Storage and Degradation
			The Physiological Actions of Vitamin D
				In the Intestine
				In Bones
				In Kidneys
				Other Effects of Vitamin D
		Interaction Between Vitamin D and Immune Cells
			Vitamin D and Innate Immunity
			Vitamin D and Immune Cell
			Vitamin D and Humoral Immunity
	References
	Further Reading
23 Viral Etiology Involved in the Emergence of the Breast Cancer
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	History of Breast Cancer
		Anatomy
		Symptoms
		Breast Cancer Types
			The Noninvasive Breast Cancer or In Situ Breast Cancer
			The Invasive Breast Cancer
			Inflammatory Breast Cancer
			The Paget’s Disease of the Nipple
		Epidemiology
		Risk Factors
	Viral Etiology of Breast Cancer
		Mouse Mammary Tumor Virus-Like
		Human Papillomavirus
		Epstein–Barr Virus
		Bovine Leukemia Virus
	Conclusion
	References
	Further Reading
24 Emergence of Oncogenic High-Risk Human Papillomavirus Types and Cervical Cancer
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	History of Human Papillomavirus Discovery
	Epidemiology of Human Papillomavirus Infection
	Human Papillomavirus Characteristic
		Human Papillomavirus Structural Organization
		Genomic Organization and Viral Proteins
		The Long Control Region
		The Early Region
			E1 Protein
			E2 Protein
			E4 Protein
			E5 Oncoprotein
			E6 Oncoprotein
			E7 Oncoprotein
		The Late Region
			L1 Protein
			L2 Protein
	Human Papillomavirus Transmission Modes
		Sexual Transmission
		Vertical Transmission
		Horizontal Transmission
	Human Papillomavirus Viral Multiplication
		Human Papillomavirus Viral Latency
		Cellular Mechanisms of Human Papillomavirus-Induced Carcinogenesis
	Natural History of Cervical Cancer
		Anatomo-Pathological Aspect of Cervical Cancer
		Cervical Cancer Risk Factors
	Diagnosis: Human Papillomavirus Genome Detection
		Hybridization Techniques
		Southern Blot
		Dot Blot
		In Situ Hybridization
			Hybridization in Liquid Phase (Test Hybrid Capture 2)
	Molecular Amplification Techniques
		Polymerase Chain Reaction Consensus
		Specific Polymerase Chain Reaction
		Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction
		Detection of E6 and E7 Proteins messenger Ribonucleic Acid
	Treatment
		Treatment of Squamous Intraepithelial Lesions
		Medication Means
		The Instrumental Means
	Treatment of Invasive Cervical Cancer
	Human Papillomavirus Vaccination
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further Reading
25 Status of Helicobacter pylori Coinfection With Epstein–Barr Virus in Gastric Cancer
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Epidemiology
	The Contribution of Helicobacter pylori and Epstein–Barr Virus to Cancer Development
		Helicobacter pylori Infection
		Epstein–Barr Virus Infection
	Epigenetic Modification and DNA Methylation
		Helicobacter pylori and Aberrant DNA Methylation
		Epstein–Barr Virus and Aberrant DNA Methylation
	Helicobacter pylori and Epstein–Barr Virus Interaction in Gastric Epithelial Cells
	Conclusion
	References
	Further Reading
26 Ninety Years of DNA Methylation
	Introduction
	The Profile of DNA Methylation
		The Distribution of Methyl Groups
		The Biochemical Reaction of DNA Methylation
		Targets of DNA Methylation
		Demethyl to Reprogram
	Establishing and Maintaining DNA Methylation
		DNA Methyltransferases
			Similarity and Difference Between DNA Family Methyltransferases
			DNA Methyltransferase 1 Family and Its Role
			DNA Methyltransferase 3 Family and Its Role
			DNA Methyltransferase 2 Family and Its Role
		Cooperation of DNA Methyltransferases in the Maintenance and De Novo of DNA Methylation
	CpG Islands and Genomic Functions: Link With Transcription and Replication
		Genotypic Localization of CpG Islands and Association With Gene Regions
			Position of Islands on the Genome
			Position of CpG Islands in Relation to Genes
			Types of CpG Island and Annotation Quality
	Density in CpG Islands Along the Genes
	Role of DNA Methylation in Cancer
		Inhibition of DNA Methyltransferase 1
		DNA Hypermethylation Inhibits Gene Transcription
		Role of DNA Hypomethylation in Cancer Development
	The Emergence of DNA Methylation in Cancer
		Methylation and DNA Disease
		DNA Methylation Associated With a Viral Infection in the Development of Cancer
	Prediction of Methylated DNA in Gene Promoters by the Use of Markov
		Building HMM
			Pamaters
			Application of HMM
			Combination of Contiguous Short CGIs
		Experiments
			Performance Evaluation
			Comparison With Other Tools
		Method of Study of Methylation
			PCR Specific for Methylation
			Pyrosequencing
	Conclusion
	References
	Further Reading
27 Emergence and Reemergence of Viral Zoonotic Diseases: Concepts and Factors of Emerging and Reemerging Globalization of H...
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Historical Overview
	Universal Concepts
		Environment
		Human–Animal Interface
		One Health, One World
	Factors of Pathogens Emergence and Reemergence
		Mutations of Infectious Agents
		Human Activities
		Environmental Changes
	Prevention Strategy and Constraints
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further Reading
28 Capripoxvirus Diseases: Current Updates and Developed Strategies for Control
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Capripoxviruses
		Classification
		Genomic Organization
		Physiochemical Properties
		Virulence
		Host Specificity
		Immunity
	Modes of Transmission
	Dissemination Risk Factors
		Pathogen Risk Factor
		Host Risk Factor
		Environment Risk Factor
	Clinical Signs and Symptoms
	Economic Impact and Losses
	Temporospatial Distribution and Recent Outbreaks
	Diagnosis and Differentiation of Capripoxvirus
		Molecular Tools
			Generic Capripoxvirus Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction
			Species-Specific Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction
			Capripox Gel-Based Polymerase Chain Reaction
			Portable Pen-Side Polymerase Chain Reaction
			Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification
			Sequencing
			Electron Microscopy
			Virus Isolation
		Serological Tests
			Virus Neutralization
			Indirect Fluorescent Antibody Test
			Agar Gel Immunodiffusion
			Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
			Western Blotting
	Prophylaxis and Developed Strategies for Control and Eradication
		Prophylaxis
		Control Measures
			Vaccines Currently Available
			Ideal Vaccine Product Profile
			Vector and Recombinant Vaccines
			Differentiating Infected From Vaccinated Animals Vaccines and Their Companion Tests
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further Reading
29 Koi Herpesvirus Disease
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Virus Morphology and Genomic Characteristics
	Host and Geographical Distribution
	Molecular Epidemiology and Phylogenetic Analysis
	Signs of Disease
	Transmission
		Diagnosis
			Clinical Signs
			Cell Culture
			Histology
			Molecular Detection
			Antigen/Antibody Detection
		Control and Treatment
	Conclusion
	References
30 Viral Nervous Necrosis Disease
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Virus Morphogenesis and Genomic Characteristics
	Hosts and Geographical Distribution
	Molecular Epidemiology and Phylogenetic Analysis
	Clinical Signs
	Anatomo-Pathological Lesions
	Histopathological Lesions
	Acute Infection
	Subclinical Infection
	Chronic Form
	Viral Detection
		Virus Isolation
		Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
		Immunofluorescence Antibody Test
			Molecular Diagnostic Techniques
	Disease Transmission
		The Entry and Progression of Nervous Necrosis Virus
		Tissue Tropism
		Horizontal Transmission
		Vertical Transmission
		Other Transmission Routes
	Protective and Control Strategies
	Conclusion and Suggestion for Future Research
	References
	Further Reading
31 Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia Disease
	Introduction
	Virus Morphogenesis and Genomic Characteristics
	Hosts and Geographical Distribution
	Molecular Epidemiology and Phylogenetic Analysis
	Clinical Signs of Disease and Diagnosis
	Viral Detection
	Disease Transmission
	Protective and Control Strategies
	Conclusion
	References
32 White Spot Syndrome Virus
	Introduction
	Virus Morphology and Taxonomic Association
	Genome Characteristic
	Geographical Distribution
	Clinical Signs and General Pathology
	Disease Transmission
	Host Range
	Techniques for White Spot Syndrome Virus Detection
	Management and Control Strategy
	References
	Further Reading
33 Avian Coronavirus: Case of Infectious Bronchitis Virus Pathogenesis, Diagnostic Approaches, and Phylogenetic Relationshi...
	Introduction
	Pathogenesis
		Determinants of the Pathogenicity of Infectious Bronchitis Virus
		Host Susceptibility
		Infection and Transmission
	Diagnosis Approaches
		Virological Identification: Isolation and Culture
		Serological Diagnosis
		Molecular Diagnosis
	Phylogenetic Relationship of African Variant and the Reference Strains of Infectious Bronchitis Virus
		S1 Gene Sequence Analysis
		Phylogenic Construction
	Conclusion
	References
34 Role of Genetic and Molecular Dynamics in the Emergence, Reemergence, and Interspecies Transmission of Equine Influenza ...
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Influenza Virus
		Taxonomy and Classification
		Morphology and General Structure
		Viral Envelope
		Viral Genome
		Viral Proteins
		Hemagglutinin
			General Structure
			Hemagglutinin 1 Subunit
				Cellular Receptor-Binding Sites
				Cleavage Site
				Antigenic Sites
			Hemagglutinin 2 Subunit
			Biological Role
		Neuraminidase
			Structure
			Biological Role
			Proteins From the Matrix
			Nonstructural Proteins
			Ribonucleoprotein Viral Complex
		Replicative Cycle of the Virus
			Fixation, Endocytosis, and Release of vRNPs Complexes
			Active Import of the Viral Genome Into the Cell Nucleus
			Viral Transcription and Replication in the Kernel
			Assembly and Budding
	Emergence and Evolution of Equine Influenza Viruses
		Equine Influenza Virus (H7N7)
			Isolation and Viral Evolution
			Insidious Circulation
		Equine Influenza Virus (H3N8)
			Viral Isolation
			Antigen Evolution
			Current World Situation
	Pathophysiology
	Genetic Dynamism of Influenza Viruses
		Interspecies Barrier
		Antigenic Variations
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
35 Emerging and Reemerging Fowl Aviadenovirus Infections
	Introduction
	Occurrence and Geographical Distribution
		Inclusion Body Hepatitis
		Hydropericardium Syndrome
		Gizzard Erosion
	Transmission and Pathogenicity
		Pathogenicity
		Inclusion Body Hepatitis
		Hydropericardium Syndrome
		Gizzard Erosion
	Clinical Course and Pathobiology
		Inclusion Body Hepatitis
		Hydropericardium Syndrome
		Gizzard Erosion
	Diagnosis, Prevention, and Control
	Conclusion and Perspectives
	References
	Further Reading
36 Avian Reoviruses: Case of Viral Arthritis Disease Overview of Viral Arthritis in Poultry
	Introduction
	Etiology and Pathogenesis
	Transmission and Epidemiology
	Virus Characterization
		Clinical Findings
		Lesions
		Diagnosis
		Treatment and Control
		Virus Growth in Cell Cultures
	Pathology
	Conclusion
	References
	Further Reading
37 Emergent Mosquito-Borne Flaviviruses and Animal Diseases
	Flaviviridae Family—Flavivirus Genus
		Flaviviridae Family
		Flavivirus Genus
			History
			Phylogeny
		Structure and Virion Properties
			Morphology
		Genome and Proteins
		Multiplication Cycle
	Physicochemical Properties
		Pathogenesis
		Immune Response
		Diagnosis
		Epidemiology
		Host Range
		Geographical Distribution
	Emergent Mosquito-Borne Flaviviruses and Animal Diseases
		West Nile and Usutu Virus Diseases
			West Nile Disease
			Usutu Virus Disease
		The Japanese Encephalitis
			Bagaza Virus/Turkey Meningoencephalitis Virus
			Wesselsbron Disease
			Tembusu Virus/Duck Egg Drop Syndrome Virus
	References
	Further Reading
38 Emerging and Reemerging Viral Diseases of Solanaceous Crops and Management Strategies for Detection and Eradication
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Viral Diseases of Solanaceous Crops
		Alfalfa Mosaic Virus
			Symptomatology and Transmission of Alfalfa Mosaic Virus
			Taxonomy of the Alfalfa Mosaic Virus
			Morphology and Organization of the Alfalfa Mosaic Virus Genome
			Geographical Distribution and Natural Hosts of Alfalfa Mosaic Virus
		Cucumber Mosaic Virus
			Symptomatology and Cucumber Mosaic Virus Transmission
			Cucumber Mosaic Virus Taxonomy
			Morphology and Organization of the Cucumber Mosaic Virus Genome
			Geographical Distribution and Natural Hosts of Cucumber Mosaic Virus
		Pepino Mosaic Virus
			Symptomatology and Transmission of Pepino Mosaic Virus
			Taxonomy of Pepino Mosaic Virus
			Morphology and Organization of the Genome of Pepino Mosaic Virus
			Geographical Distribution and Natural Hosts of Pepino Mosaic Virus
		Potato Yellow Mosaic Virus
			Symptomatology and Transmission of Potato Yellow Mosaic Virus
			Taxonomy of Potato Yellow Mosaic Virus
			Morphology and Organization of the Genome of Potato Yellow Mosaic Virus
			Geographical Distribution and Natural Hosts of Potato Yellow Mosaic Virus
		Tomato Chlorosis Virus
			Symptomatology and Transmission of Tomato Chlorosis Virus
			Taxonomy of Tomato Chlorosis Virus
			Morphology and Organization of the Tomato Chlorosis Virus Genome
			Geographical Distribution and Natural Hosts of Tomato Chlorosis Virus
		Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus
			Symptomatology and Transmission of Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus
			Taxonomy of Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus
			Morphology and Genome Organization of Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus
			Geographical Distribution and Natural Hosts of Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus
		Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus
			Symptomatology and Transmission of Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus
			Taxonomy of Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus
			Morphology and Genome Organization Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus
			Geographical Distribution and Natural Hosts Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus
		Tobacco Mosaic Virus
			Symptomatology and Transmission of Tobacco Mosaic Virus
			Taxonomy of Tobacco Mosaic Virus
			Morphology and Organization of the Tobacco Mosaic Virus Genome
			Geographical Distribution and Natural Hosts of Tobacco Mosaic Virus
	Diagnosis of Viral Pathogen
		Biological Methods
			Symptomatology
			Indexing
			Physical Properties
		Microscopic Diagnosis
		Serological Diagnosis
			Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
			Immuno-Dot-Blot
			Immunocapture Techniques Followed by a Gene Amplification Reaction
			Lateral Flow Immuno-Chromatographic Test
		Molecular Diagnosis
			Polymerase Chain Reaction
			Isothermal Amplification
			Sequencing and Bioinformatics Analysis
	Eradication Strategy
		Cultural Practices
		Hygiene Measures
		Chemical Treatment
		Biological Control
		Integrated Pest Management
	Conclusion
	References
	Further Reading
39 Enteric Adenoviruses: Emerging of a Public Health Threat
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Adenovirus: A Brief Historical Classification Review
	The Viral Etiology of Adenoviruses
		Characteristics of Adenoviruses
		Insights on Adenovirus-Associated Infections
	Epidemiology
	Pathogenicity and Mode of Transmission
	Infection Process of Adenovirus
		Adsorption and Entry Into the Cell
	Transmission Mode
		Transmissibility
		Viability and Stability
	Detection of Adenoviruses: Methods Under Development and Perspectives
		Type Identification (Serotype)
		Genotyping
	Prevention and Treatment
	Use of Adenovirus in Gene Therapy
	Emergence and Reemergence of Adenovirus
	References
	Further Reading
40 Waterborne Transmission of Enteric Viruses and Their Impact on Public Health
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Part I: General Overview on Enteric Viruses
		Environmental Virology/Historical Review
		Human Enteric Viruses
			Human Enteric Viruses and Indicators of Contamination
			Resistance of Enteric Viruses
			Enteric Viruses and Transmission by Food
				Transmission by the Water Route
				Transmission by Food Route
		Acute Gastroenteritis Viruses Aigues
	Part II: Enteric Viruses
		Human Enteric Viruses
			Common Characteristics
		Enteroviruses
			Descriptions of the Enteroviruses
			Poliovirus Species
			The Coxsackievirus A and B
			Echoviruses
		Caliciviruses: Norovirus and Sapovirus
			Norovirus
			Sapovirus
		Rotavirus
		Epidemiological Review of Pathologies Caused by Rotavirus
		Enteric Adenovirus
			Description
		Picobirnavirus
			Description
		Bocavirus
			Description
		Viruses Responsible of Hepatitis
			Hepatitis A Virus
				Description
			Hepatitis E Virus
				Description
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
	Further Reading
41 Pacific Oyster, Crassostrea gigas Mortality Associated With the Herpesvirus: Etiology and Environmental Emerging Factors
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	The Pacific Oyster Crassostrea gigas
		Systematics and Area of Distribution
		Biology of the Oyster Crassostrea gigas
			Classification
			Anatomy and Circulatory System
			Life Cycle and Reproduction
		Production and Historical Context
	Massive Mortality of the Oyster Crassostrea gigas Infected With Ostreid herpesvirus 1
		Etiological Agent
		The Pathogen: The Ostreid Herpesvirus 1
			Survival Outside the Host
			Stability of the Agent
			Life Cycle
		World Distribution
		Morphology and Genome Organization
		Viral Replication
		Laboratory Diagnosis of Infection With Ostreid herpesvirus 1
		Resistance and Immunity
		Physiological Changes of Crassostrea gigas Associated With Ostreid herpesvirus 1 Infection
	Epidemiology
		Persistence of the Pathogen
		Transmission Modes
		Host Factors
			Susceptible Host Species
			Susceptible Stages of the Host
			Species or Subpopulation Predilection (Probability of Detection)
			Target Organs and Infected Tissue
			Known or Suspected Wild Aquatic Animal Carriers
		Risk Factors for Ostreid herpesvirus 1 Infection
			Risks Related to the Environment
				Temperature
				Rainfall and Toxic Substances
				Impacts of Cultural Practices
			Other Factors
		Factors Influencing Transmission and Expression of Disease
	Considerations for Disease Management in Aquatic Environments
	The Emergence and Spread of Ostreid herpesvirus 1 μVar
	References
	Further Reading
42 Acute Viral Hepatitis A: A Global Health Concern
	Abbreviations
	Hepatitis A Virus
		Genome Organization
	Hepatitis A Disease
		Symptoms
		Subject at Risks
			Travelers
			Health-Care Workers
	Transmission
		Oral Transmission
		Parenteral Transmission
	Hepatitis A as a Foodborne Disease
	Geographical Distribution
		High Endemicity Countries
		Intermediate Endemicity Countries
		Low Endemicity Countries
	Acknowledgments
	References
43 Emergence of Norovirus Strains in Worldwide Distribution and Environmental Spreading
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Norovirus
		Historic of Norovirus
		Norovirus Morphology and Structure
		Genomic Organization of Norovirus
	Pathology of Norovirus
	Transmission of Norovirus
		Interhuman Transmission
		Human–Animal Transmission
		Water and Food Transmission
	Norovirus and Environment Interaction
		Norovirus in the Water Environment
	Emergence of Human Norovirus Strains
		Emergence of Norovirus GII.4
		Emergence of Norovirus GII.17
	Prevention and Vaccination
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further Reading
44 The Waterborne and Foodborne Viral Diseases Related to Reemerging of Poliovirus
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Current History of Poliovirus
	Poliovirus Viral Taxonomy
	Poliovirus Pathogenesis
		Variability Mechanisms and Pathogenicity of Poliovirus
		Poliovirus Host Susceptibility
		Poliovirus Transmission
		Poliovirus Multiplication Cycle
	Poliovirus Diagnosis Approaches
		Poliovirus Isolation and Identification
		Poliovirus Serological Diagnosis
	Poliovirus Medical Prophylaxis
	Poliovirus Antiviral Vaccine
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
45 Worldwide Emerging and Reemerging Rotavirus Genotypes: Genetic Variability and Interspecies Transmission in Health and E...
	Abbreviations
	Introduction
	Rotavirus: Structure and Genetic Arrangement
	Rotavirus and Clinical Manifestations
	Rotavirus Pathology
	Collective Foodborne Illness and Transmission
	Prevention and Transmission of Rotavirus Infection
	Emergence of Rotavirus
	Mechanisms of the Genetic Diversity of Rotavirus
	Risk of the Emergence of New Strains of Rotavirus
	The Prevention by Vaccination Against Infection to Rotavirus
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further Reading
46 Emerging Plant Viruses
	Introduction
		What Is the Consequences of Climate Change on Plant Diseases?
		What Is Emerging Plant Virus?
		Effects of Climatic Changes and Global Warming on Reservoir Wild Plants
		Effects of Climatic Changes and Global Warming on Vector Populations
		On Aphids
		On Whiteflies
		On Thrips
		Effects of Climatic Changes and Global Warming on Plant Viruses
		Recently Emerging Plant Viruses on Different Plant Hosts
		Some Features of Important Emerging Viruses
			Pepino Mosaic Potexvirus
			Torradovirus Infections
			Tomato Torrado Virus
				Molecular Structure
			Tomato Marchitez Virus
			Tomato Chocolate Spot Virus
			Tomato Necrotic Dwarf Virus
			Lettuce Necrotic Leaf Curl Virus
			Carrot Torrado Virus
			Cassava Torrado-Like Virus
			Maize Lethal Necrosis Disease
			Grapevine Red Blotch Virus
			Citrus Leprosis Rhabdovirus
			Potato Yellow Vein Virus
			Tomato Infectious Chlorosis Crinivirus and Tomato Chlorosis Crinivirus
			Lettuce Infectious Yellows Crinivirus
			Lettuce Chlorosis Virus
			Cucurbit Yellow Stunting Disorder Crinivirus and Cucurbit Chlorotic Yellowing Virus
			Sweet Potato Chlorotic Stunt Crinivirus
			Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Sardinia Virus
			African Cassava Mosaic Disease and Latent Indian Cassava Mosaic Virus
			Southern Rice Black-Streaked Dwarf Virus
			Raspberry Bushy Dwarf Virus
			Tomato Necrotic Spot Virus
			Blueberry Shock Ilarvirus
			Blueberry Scorch Virus
			Blueberry Red Ringspot Virus
	Conclusion
	References
47 Gynecomammary and Prostate Tumors: Epidemiology and Viral Etiology
	Introduction
	Epidemiology of Prostate Cancer
		Epidemiology of Prostate Cancer in Africa
		Emergent Virus in Prostate Cancer
			Human Endogenous Retrovirus
			Polyomavirus BK
			The Xenotropic Murine Leukemia Virus-Related Virus and Prostate Cancer
			Human Papillomavirus and Prostate Cancer
		Other Hypothesis on the Link Between Oncogenic Viruses and Prostate Cancer
	Epidemiology of Gynecological and Mammary Cancers
		Gynecological and Mammary Tumors Statistics Middle East and North Africa Region
		Epidemiology of Gynecological and Mammary Cancer in Africa
		Oncogenesis of Breast Cancer
		Oncogenesis of Cervical Cancer
		Oncogenesis of Ovarian Cancer and Other Congenital Cancers
		Emergence of Viruses in Gynecological and Mammary Cancers
			Human papillomavirus
			Human Mammary Tumor Virus
			Epstein–Barr Virus
			Polyomavirus
	Conclusion
	References
	Further Reading
		Websites
Index
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