Elements of X-Ray Diffraction

Cover......Page 1
Table of Contents......Page 4
 A......Page 16
 C......Page 17
 D......Page 19
 E......Page 20
 G......Page 21
 I......Page 22
 M......Page 23
 N......Page 24
 P......Page 25
 S......Page 27
 V......Page 29
 Z......Page 30
1. Science as a Way of Learning: A Guide to the Natural World......Page 32
 1. How Does Science Impact the Everyday World?......Page 34
 2. What Is Science?......Page 37
 3. The Nature of Biology......Page 40
 4. Special Qualities of Biology......Page 42
 Chapter Review......Page 47
2. Fundamental Building Blocks: Chemistry, Water, and pH......Page 50
 1. Chemistry’s Building Block: The Atom......Page 52
 2. Chemical Bonding: The Covalent Bond......Page 55
 3. The Ionic Bond......Page 58
 5. Three-Dimensional Shape in Molecules......Page 63
 6. Water and Life......Page 64
 7. Acids and Bases......Page 68
 Chapter Review......Page 72
3. Life’s Components: Biological Molecules......Page 76
 1. Carbon’s Place in the Living World......Page 78
 2. Functional Groups......Page 80
 3. Carbohydrates......Page 81
 4. Lipids......Page 84
 5. Proteins......Page 90
 6. Nucleic Acids......Page 94
 Chapter Review......Page 97
4. Life’s Home: The Cell......Page 100
 1. Cells as Life’s Fundamental Unit......Page 102
 3. The Eukaryotic Cell......Page 103
 4. A Tour of the Animal Cell’s Protein Production Path......Page 108
 5. Cell Structures Outside the Protein Production Path......Page 113
 6. The Cytoskeleton: Internal Scaffolding......Page 115
 7. The Plant Cell......Page 120
 8. Cell-to-Cell Communication......Page 122
 Chapter Review......Page 126
5. Life’s Border: The Plasma Membrane......Page 130
 1.The Nature of the Plasma Membrane......Page 132
 2. Diffusion, Gradients, and Osmosis......Page 136
 3. Moving Smaller Substances In and Out......Page 139
 4. Moving Larger Substances In and Out......Page 141
 Chapter Review......Page 144
6. Life’s Mainspring: An Introduction to Energy......Page 148
 2. The Nature of Energy......Page 150
 3. How Is Energy Used by Living Things?......Page 153
 4. The Energy Dispenser: ATP......Page 154
 5. Efficient Energy Use in Living Things: Enzymes......Page 156
 6. Enzymes and the Activation Barrier......Page 157
 7. Regulating Enzymatic Activity......Page 159
 Chapter Review......Page 161
7. Vital Harvest: Deriving Energy from Food......Page 164
 1. Energizing ATP......Page 167
 2. The Three Stages of Cellular Respiration......Page 169
 4. Second Stage of Respiration: The Krebs Cycle......Page 171
 5. Third Stage of Respiration: The Electron Transport Chain......Page 175
 6. Other Foods, Other Respiratory Pathways......Page 178
 Chapter Review......Page 181
8. The Green World’s Gift: Photosynthesis......Page 184
 1. Photosynthesis and Energy......Page 186
 2. The Components of Photosynthesis......Page 187
 3. Stage 1: The Light Reactions......Page 191
 4. Stage 2: The Calvin Cycle......Page 193
 5. Photorespiration and the C4 Pathway......Page 194
 6. CAM Photosynthesis......Page 197
 Chapter Review......Page 199
9. The Links in Life’s Chain: Genetics and Cell Division......Page 202
 1. An Introduction to Genetics......Page 204
 2. An Introduction to Cell Division......Page 207
 3. DNA in Chromosomes......Page 208
 4. Mitosis and Cytokinesis......Page 212
 5. Cell Division in Plants and Bacteria......Page 217
 Chapter Review......Page 219
10. Preparing for Sexual Reproduction: Meiosis......Page 222
 1. An Overview of Meiosis......Page 224
 2. The Steps in Meiosis......Page 225
 3. The Significance of Meiosis......Page 228
 5. Gamete Formation in Humans......Page 231
 6. Life Cycles: Humans and Other Organisms......Page 234
 Chapter Review......Page 236
11. The First Geneticist: Mendel and His Discoveries......Page 240
 1. Mendel and the Black Box......Page 242
 2. The Experimental Subjects: Pisum sativum......Page 243
 3. Starting the Experiments: Yellow and Green Peas......Page 245
 4. Another Generation......Page 246
 5. Crosses Involving Two Characters......Page 250
 7. Incomplete Dominance and Codominance......Page 252
 8. Multiple Alleles and Polygenic Inheritance......Page 255
 9. Genes and Environment......Page 256
 Chapter Review......Page 259
12. Units of Heredity: Chromosomes and Inheritance......Page 264
 1. X-Linked Inheritance in Humans......Page 266
 2. Autosomal Genetic Disorders......Page 268
 3. Tracking Traits with Pedigrees......Page 270
 5. Incorrect Chromosome Number: Aneuploidy......Page 271
 6. Structural Aberrations in Chromosomes......Page 277
 Chapter Review......Page 282
13. Passing On Life’s Information: DNA Structure and Replication......Page 286
 1. The Form and Function of Genes......Page 288
 2. Watson and Crick: The Double Helix......Page 289
 3. The Components of DNA and Their Arrangement......Page 291
 4. Mutations......Page 294
 Chapter Review......Page 297
14. How Proteins Are Made: Genetic Transcription, Translation, and Regulation......Page 300
 2. Protein Synthesis in Overview......Page 302
 3. A Closer Look at Transcription......Page 304
 4. A Closer Look at Translation......Page 306
 5. Genetic Regulation......Page 310
 6. Genetics and Life......Page 316
 Chapter Review......Page 317
15. The Future Isn’t What It Used to Be: Biotechnology......Page 320
 2. Transgenic Biotechnology......Page 323
 3. Reproductive Cloning......Page 327
 4. Cell Reprogramming......Page 329
 5. Forensic Biotechnology......Page 334
 6. Controversies in Biotechnology......Page 337
 Chapter Review......Page 339
16. An Introduction to Evolution: Charles Darwin, Evolutionary Thought, and the Evidence for Evolution......Page 342
 1. Evolution and Its Core Principles......Page 344
 2. Charles Darwin and the Theory of Evolution......Page 346
 3. Evolutionary Thinking before Darwin......Page 347
 4. Darwin’s Insights Following the Beagle’s Voyage......Page 348
 6. Darwin: Accepted, Doubted, and Vindicated......Page 350
 7. Opposition to the Theory of Evolution......Page 352
 8. The Evidence for Evolution......Page 353
 Chapter Review......Page 359
17. The Means of Evolution: Microevolution......Page 362
 1. What Is It That Evolves?......Page 364
 2. Evolution as a Change in the Frequency of Alleles......Page 365
 3. Five Agents of Microevolution......Page 366
 4. Natural Selection and Evolutionary Fitness......Page 371
 5. Three Modes of Natural Selection......Page 374
 Chapter Review......Page 379
18. The Outcomes of Evolution: Macroevolution......Page 382
 1. What Is a Species?......Page 384
 2. How Do New Species Arise?......Page 386
 3. Adaptive Radiation and the Pace of Speciation......Page 390
 4. The Categorization of Earth’s Living Things......Page 393
 5. Classical Taxonomy and Cladistics......Page 396
 Chapter Review......Page 400
19. A Slow Unfolding: The History of Life on Earth......Page 404
 1. The Geological Timescale......Page 407
 2. How Did Life Begin?......Page 409
 3. The Tree of Life......Page 414
 4. A Long First Era: The Precambrian......Page 415
 5. The Cambrian Explosion......Page 416
 6. Plants Move onto Land......Page 418
 7. Animals Move onto Land......Page 420
 Chapter Review......Page 427
20. Arriving Late, Traveling Far: The Evolution of Human Beings......Page 430
 1. The Human Family Tree......Page 432
 2. Human Evolution in Overview......Page 433
 3. Interpreting the Fossil Evidence......Page 435
 4. Snapshots from the Past: Four Hominins......Page 437
 5. The Appearance of Modern Human Beings......Page 439
 6. Next-to-Last Standing? The Hobbit People......Page 442
 Chapter Review......Page 445
21. Viruses, Bacteria, Archaea, and Protists: The Diversity of Life......Page 448
 1. Life’s Categories and the Importance of Microbes......Page 451
 2. Viruses: Making a Living by Hijacking Cells......Page 453
 3. Bacteria: Masters of Every Environment......Page 456
 4. Intimate Strangers: Humans and Bacteria......Page 459
 5. Bacteria and Human Disease......Page 460
 6. Archaea: From Marginal Player to Center Stage......Page 461
 7. Protists: Pioneers in Diversifying Life......Page 463
 8. Protists and Sexual Reproduction......Page 464
 9. Photosynthesizing Protists......Page 465
 10. Heterotrophic Protists......Page 466
 Chapter Review......Page 471
22. Fungi: The Diversity of Life......Page 474
 1. The Fungi: Life as a Web of Slender Threads......Page 476
 2. Roles of Fungi in Society and Nature......Page 478
 3. Structure and Reproduction in Fungi......Page 479
 4. Categories of Fungi......Page 481
 5. Fungal Associations: Lichens and Mycorrhizae......Page 485
 Chapter Review......Page 487
23. Animals: The Diversity of Life......Page 490
 1. What Is an Animal?......Page 492
 2. Lessons from the Animal Family Tree......Page 493
 3. Across the Animal Kingdom: Nine Phyla......Page 496
 4. Animal Reproduction......Page 503
 5. Egg Fertilization and Protection......Page 505
 6. Organs and Circulation......Page 509
 7. Skeletons and Molting......Page 510
 Chapter Review......Page 512
24. Plants: The Diversity of Life......Page 516
 1. The Roles and Characteristics of Plants......Page 518
 2. Types of Plants......Page 521
 3. Angiosperm–Animal Interactions......Page 526
 4. Responding to External Signals......Page 528
 Chapter Review......Page 532
25. The Angiosperms: Form and Function in Flowering Plants......Page 536
 1. The Structure of Angiosperms......Page 539
 2. Monocots and Dicots......Page 544
 3. Plant Tissue Types......Page 545
 4. Primary Growth in Angiosperms......Page 547
 5. Fluid Movement: The Vascular System......Page 549
 6. Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms......Page 551
 7. The Developing Plan......Page 553
 Chapter Review......Page 556
26. Body Support and Movement: The Integumentary, Skeletal, and Muscular Systems......Page 560
 1. How the Body Regulates Itself......Page 562
 3. The Four Basic Tissue Types......Page 564
 4. Organs Are Made of Several Kinds of Tissues......Page 565
 5. Organs and Tissues Make Up Organ Systems......Page 567
 6. The Integumentary......Page 570
 7. The Skeletal System......Page 572
 8. The Muscular System......Page 579
 Chapter Review......Page 581
27. Communication and Control: The Nervous System......Page 586
 1. Structure of the Nervous System......Page 588
 2. Cells of the Nervous System......Page 589
 3. Nervous-System Signaling......Page 593
 4. The Spinal Cord......Page 596
 5. The Autonomic Nervous System......Page 598
 6. The Human Brain......Page 599
 8. Touch......Page 602
 9. Smell......Page 603
 10. Taste......Page 605
 11 Hearing......Page 606
 12. Vision......Page 609
 Chapter Review......Page 612
28. Communication and Control: The Endocrine System......Page 616
 1. The Endocrine System in Overview......Page 619
 2. Hormone Types and Modes of Action......Page 620
 4. Hormone Central: The Hypothalamus......Page 622
 5. Hormones in Action: Three Examples......Page 626
 Chapter Review......Page 632
29. Defending the Body: The Immune System......Page 636
 1. The Immune System in Overview......Page 638
 2. The Innate Immune Response......Page 640
 3. The Adaptive Immune Response......Page 643
 5. The Immune System Can Cause Trouble......Page 651
 6. New Frontiers in Immune Therapy......Page 653
 Chapter Review......Page 658
30. Transport and Exchange: Blood and Breath......Page 662
 1. The Cardiovascular System......Page 664
 2. The Composition of Blood......Page 665
 3. Blood Vessels......Page 666
 4. The Heart and Blood Circulation......Page 667
 5. What Is a Heart Attack?......Page 669
 6. Distributing the Goods: The Capillary Beds......Page 672
 7. The Respiratory System......Page 673
 8. Steps in Respiration......Page 674
 Chapter Review......Page 677
31. Transport and Exchange: Digestion, Nutrition, and Elimination......Page 680
 1. The Digestive System......Page 682
 2. Structure of the Digestive System......Page 683
 3. Steps in Digestion......Page 684
 4. Human Nutrition......Page 688
 5. Water, Minerals, and Vitamins......Page 689
 6. Calories and the Energy-Yielding Nutrients......Page 692
 7. Proteins, Carbohydrates, and Lipids......Page 696
 8. Elements of a Healthy Diet......Page 700
 9. The Urinary System......Page 702
 10 How the Kidneys Function......Page 703
 11. Urine Storage and Excretion......Page 704
 Chapter Review......Page 706
32. An Amazingly Detailed Script: Animal Development......Page 710
 1. General Processes in Development......Page 712
 2. Factors that Underlie Development......Page 716
 3. Unity in Development: Homeobox Sequences......Page 719
 5. Development through Life......Page 720
 Chapter Review......Page 721
33. How the Baby Came to Be: Human Reproduction......Page 724
 1. Overview of Human Reproduction and Development......Page 726
 2. The Female Reproductive System......Page 728
 3. The Male Reproductive System......Page 734
 4. The Union of Sperm and Egg......Page 736
 5. Human Development Prior to Birth......Page 739
 6. The Birth of the Baby......Page 744
 Chapter Review......Page 746
34. An Interactive Living World: Populations in Ecology......Page 750
 1. The Study of Ecology......Page 753
 2. Populations: Size and Dynamics......Page 754
 3. r-Selected and K-Selected Species......Page 758
 4. Thinking about Human Populations......Page 760
 Chapter Review......Page 765
35. An Interactive Living World: Communities in Ecology......Page 768
 1. Structure in Communities......Page 770
 2. Types of Interaction among Community Members......Page 772
 3. Interaction through Competition......Page 773
 4. Interaction through Predation and Parasitism......Page 775
 5. Interaction through Mutualism and Commensalism......Page 779
 6. Succession in Communities......Page 781
 Chapter Review......Page 786
Appendix: Metric Conversions......Page 790
Appendix: Periodic Table of The Elements......Page 792
 A......Page 794
 B......Page 796
 C......Page 797
 D......Page 800
 E......Page 801
 F......Page 803
 G......Page 804
 H......Page 806
 I......Page 807
 L......Page 808
 M......Page 809
 N......Page 811
 P......Page 812
 R......Page 815
 S......Page 816
 T......Page 819
 U......Page 820
 W......Page 821
 Z......Page 822