Elements of Photogrammetry with Applications in GIS

Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
About the Authors
Preface
Chapter 1: Introduction
	1-1. Definition of Photogrammetry
	1-2. History of Photogrammetry
	1-3. Types of Photographs
	1-4. Taking Vertical Aerial Photographs
	1-5. Existing Aerial Photography
	1-6. Uses of Photogrammetry
	1-7. Photogrammetry and Geographic Information Systems
	1-8. Professional Photogrammetry Organizations
	References
	Problems
Chapter 2: Principles of Photography and Imaging
	2-1. Introduction
	2-2. Fundamental Optics
	2-3. Lenses
	2-4. Single-Lens Camera
	2-5. Illuminance
	2-6. Relationship of Aperture and Shutter Speed
	2-7. Characteristics of Photographic Emulsions
	2-8. Processing and Printing Black-and-White Photographs
	2-9. Spectral Sensitivity of Emulsions
	2-10. Filters
	2-11. Color Film
	2-12. Digital Images
	2-13. Color Image Representation
	2-14. Digital Image Display
	References
	Problems
Chapter 3: Cameras and Other Imaging Devices
	3-1. Introduction
	3-2. Metric Cameras for Aerial Mapping
	3-3. Main Parts of Frame Aerial Cameras
		3-3-1. Camera Magazine
		3-3-2. Camera Body
		3-3-3. Lens Cone Assembly
	3-4. Focal Plane and Fiducial Marks
	3-5. Shutters
	3-6. Camera Mounts
	3-7. Camera Controls
	3-8. Automatic Data Recording
	3-9. Digital Mapping Cameras
		3-9-1. Digital-Frame Cameras
		3-9-2. Linear Array Sensors
	3-10. Camera Calibration
	3-11. Laboratory Methods of Camera Calibration
	3-12. Stellar and Field Methods of Camera Calibration
	3-13. Calibration of Nonmetric Cameras
	3-14. Calibrating the Resolution of a Camera
	References
	Problems
Chapter 4: Image Measurements and Refinements
	4-1. Introduction
	4-2. Coordinate Systems for Image Measurements
	4-3. Simple Scales for Photographic Measurements
	4-4. Measuring Photo Coordinates with Simple Scales
	4-5. Comparator Measurement of Photo Coordinates
	4-6. Photogrammetric Scanners
	4-7. Refinement of Measured Image Coordinates
	4-8. Distortions of Photographic Films and Papers
	4-9. Image Plane Distortion
	4-10. Reduction of Coordinates to an Origin at the Principal Point
	4-11. Correction for Lens Distortions
	4-12. Correction for Atmospheric Refraction
	4-13. Correction for Earth Curvature
	4-14. Measurement of Feature Positions and Edges
	References
	Problems
Chapter 5: Object Space Coordinate Systems
	5-1. Introduction
	5-2. Concepts of Geodesy
	5-3. Geodetic Coordinate System
	5-4. Geocentric Coordinates
	5-5. Local Vertical Coordinates
	5-6. Map Projections
	5-7. Horizontal and Vertical Datums
	References
	Problems
Chapter 6: Vertical Photographs
	6-1. Geometry of Vertical Photographs
	6-2. Scale
	6-3. Scale of a Vertical Photograph Over Flat Terrain
	6-4. Scale of a Vertical Photograph Over Variable Terrain
	6-5. Average Photo Scale
	6-6. Other Methods of Determining Scale of Vertical Photographs
	6-7. Ground Coordinates from a Vertical Photograph
	6-8. Relief Displacement on a Vertical Photograph
	6-9. Flying Height of a Vertical Photograph
	6-10. Error Evaluation
	References
	Problems
Chapter 7: Stereoscopic Viewing
	7-1. Depth Perception
	7-2. The Human Eye
	7-3. Stereoscopic Depth Perception
	7-4. Viewing Photographs Stereoscopically
	7-5. Stereoscopes
	7-6. The Use of Stereoscopes
	7-7. Causes of Y Parallax
	7-8. Vertical Exaggeration in Stereoviewing
	References
	Problems
Chapter 8: Stereoscopic Parallax
	8-1. Introduction
	8-2. Photographic Flight-Line Axes for Parallax Measurement
	8-3. Monoscopic Methods of Parallax Measurement
	8-4. Principle of the Floating Mark
	8-5. Stereoscopic Methods of Parallax Measurement
	8-6. Parallax Equations
	8-7. Elevations by Parallax Differences
	8-8. Simplified Equation for Heights of Objects from Parallax Differences
	8-9. Measurement of Parallax Differences
	8-10. Computing Flying Height and Air Base
	8-11. Error Evaluation
	References
	Problems
Chapter 9: Elementary Methods of Planimetric Mapping for GIS
	9-1. Introduction
	9-2. Planimetric Mapping with Reflection Instruments
	9-3. Georeferencing of Digital Imagery
	9-4. Heads-Up Digitizing
	9-5. Photomaps
	9-6. Mosaics
	9-7. Uncontrolled Digital Mosaics
	9-8. Semicontrolled Digital Mosaics
	9-9. Controlled Digital Mosaics
	References
	Problems
Chapter 10: Tilted and Oblique Photographs
	10-1. Introduction
	10-2. Point Perspective
	10-3. Angular Orientation in Tilt, Swing, and Azimuth
	10-4. Auxiliary Tilted Photo Coordinate System
	10-5. Scale of a Tilted Photograph
	10-6. Relief Displacement on a Tilted Photograph
	10-7. Determining the Angle of Inclination of the Camera Axis in Oblique Photography
	10-8. Computing Horizontal and Vertical Angles from Oblique Photos
	10-9. Angular Orientation in Omega-Phi-Kappa
	10-10. Determining the Elements of Exterior Orientation
	10-11. Rectification of Tilted Photographs
	10-12. Correction for Relief of Ground Control Points Used in Rectification
	10-13. Analytical Rectification
	10-14. Optical-Mechanical Rectification
	10-15. Digital Rectification
	10-16. Atmospheric Refraction in Tilted Aerial Photographs
	References
	Problems
Chapter 11: Introduction to Analytical Photogrammetry
	11-1. Introduction
	11-2. Image Measurements
	11-3. Control Points
	11-4. Collinearity Condition
	11-5. Coplanarity Condition
	11-6. Space Resection by Collinearity
	11-7. Space Intersection by Collinearity
	11-8. Analytical Stereomodel
	11-9. Analytical Interior Orientation
	11-10. Analytical Relative Orientation
	11-11. Analytical Absolute Orientation
	References
	Problems
Chapter 12: Stereoscopic Plotting Instruments
	12-1. Introduction
	12-2. Classification of Stereoscopic Plotters
	Part I: Direct Optical Projection Stereoplotters
	12-3. Components
	12-4. Projection Systems
	12-5. Viewing and Tracing Systems
	12-6. Interior Orientation
	12-7. Relative Orientation
	12-8. Absolute Orientation
	Part II: Analytical Plotters
	12-9. Introduction
	12-10. System Components and Method of Operation
	12-11. Analytical Plotter Orientation
		12-11-1. Interior Orientation
		12-11-2. Relative Orientation
		12-11-3. Absolute Orientation
	12-12. Three-Dimensional Operation of Analytical Plotters
	12-13. Modes of Use of Analytical Plotters
	Part III: Softcopy Plotters
	12-14. Introduction
	12-15. System Hardware
	12-16. Image Measurements
	12-17. Orientation Procedures
	12-18. Epipolar Geometry
	References
	Problems
Chapter 13: Topographic Mapping and Spatial Data Collection
	13-1. Introduction
	13-2. Direct Compilation of Planimetric Features by Stereoplotter
	13-3. Direct Compilation of Contours by Stereoplotter
	13-4. Digitizing Planimetric Features from Stereomodels
	13-5. Representing Topographic Features in Digital Mapping
	13-6. Digital Elevation Models and Indirect Contouring
	13-7. Automatic Production of Digital Elevation Models
	13-8. Orthophoto Generation
	13-9. Map Editing
	References
	Problems
Chapter 14: Laser Scanning Systems
	14-1. Introduction
	14-2. Principles and Hardware
	14-3. Airborne Laser Scanning
	14-4. Terrestrial Laser Scanning
	14-5. Laser Scan Data
	14-5. Error Evaluation
	References
	Problems
Chapter 15: Fundamental Principles of Digital Image Processing
	15-1. Introduction
	15-2. The Digital Image Model
	15-3. Spatial Frequency of a Digital Image
	15-4. Contrast Enhancement
	15-5. Spectral Transformations
	15-6. Moving Window Operations
	15-7. Multiscale Representation
	15-8. Digital Image Matching
	15-9. Summary
	References
	Problems
Chapter 16: Control for Aerial Photogrammetry
	16-1. Introduction
	16-2. Ground Control Images and Artificial Targets
	16-3. Number and Location of Photo Control
	16-4. Traditional Field Survey Methods for Establishing Horizontal and Vertical Control
	16-5. Fundamentals of the Global Positioning System
	16-6. Kinematic GPS Positioning
	16-7. Inertial Navigation Systems
	16-8. GPS-INS Integration
	References
	Problems
Chapter 17: Aerotriangulation
	17-1. Introduction
	17-2. Pass Points for Aerotriangulation
	17-3. Fundamentals of Semianalytical Aerotriangulation
	17-4. Sequential Construction of a Strip Model from Independent Models
	17-5. Adjustment of a Strip Model to Ground
	17-6. Simultaneous Bundle Adjustment
	17-7. Initial Approximations for the Bundle Adjustment
	17-8. Bundle Adjustment with Airborne GPS Control
	17-9. Interpretation of Bundle Adjustment Results
	17-10. Aerotriangulation with Airborne Linear Array Sensors
	17-11. Satellite Image Triangulation
	17-12. Efficient Computational Strategies for Aerotriangulation
	References
	Problems
Chapter 18: Project Planning
	18-1. Introduction
	18-2. Importance of Flight Planning
	18-3. Photographic End Lap and Side Lap
	18-4. Purpose of the Photography
	18-5. Photo Scale
	18-6. Flying Height
	18-7. Ground Coverage
	18-8. Weather Conditions
	18-9. Season of the Year
	18-10. Flight Map
	18-11. Specifications
	18-12. Cost Estimating and Scheduling
	References
	Problems
Chapter 19: Terrestrial and Close-Range Photogrammetry
	19-1. Introduction
	19-2. Applications of Terrestrial and Close-Range Photogrammetry
	19-3. Terrestrial Cameras
	19-4. Matrix Equations for Analytical Self-Calibration
	19-5. Initial Approximations for Least Squares Adjustment
	19-6. Solution Approach for Self-Calibration Adjustment
	19-7. Control for Terrestrial Photogrammetry
	19-8. Analytical Self-Calibration Example
	19-9. Planning for Close-Range Photogrammetry
	References
	Problems
Chapter 20: Photogrammetric Applications in GIS
	20-1. Introduction
	20-2. Land and Property Management
	20-3. Floodplain Rating
	20-4. Water Quality Management
	20-5. Wildlife Management
	20-6. Environmental Monitoring
	20-7. Wetland Analysis
	20-8. Transportation
	20-9. Multipurpose Land Information System
	20-10. Summary
	References
	Problems
Appendix A: Units, Errors, Significant Figures, and Error Propagation
	A-1. Units
	A-2. Errors
	A-3. Significant Figures
	A-4. Error Propagation
	References
	Problems
Appendix B: Introduction to Least Squares Adjustment
	B-1. Introduction
	B-2. Definitions
	B-3. Histograms
	B-4. Normal Distribution of Random Errors
	B-5. Fundamental Condition of Least Squares
	B-6. Weighted Observations
	B-7. Applying Least Squares
	B-8. Systematic Formulation of Normal Equations
	B-9. Matrix Methods in Least Squares Adjustment
	B-10. Matrix Equations for Precisions of Adjusted Quantities
	B-11. Practical Example
	References
	Problems
Appendix C: Coordinate Transformations
	C-1. Introduction
	C-2. Two-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation
		Step 1: Scale Change
		Step 2: Rotation
		Step 3: Translation
	C-3. Alternative Method of Two-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation
	C-4. Coordinate Transformations With Redundancy
	C-5. Matrix Methods in Coordinate Transformations
	C-6. Two-Dimensional Affine Coordinate Transformation
		Step 1: Scale Change in x and y
		Step 2: Correction for Nonorthogonality
		Step 3: Rotation
		Step 4: Translation
	C-7. Three-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation
		Step 1: Rotation
		Step 2: Scaling and Translation
	C-8. Initial Approximations for the 3D Conformal Coordinate Transformation
		Step 1: Compute the Normal Vectors for Three Points
		Step 2: Calculate Tilt and Azimuth Using the Normal Vectors
		Step 3: Rotate the Points in Both Systems
		Step 4: Calculate Swing for the Common Line
		Step 5: Combine the Two Tilts, Two Azimuths, and One Swing into a Single Rotation Matrix to Obtain Omega, Phi, and Kappa
	C-9. Two-Dimensional Projective Coordinate Transformation
	C-10 Two-Dimensional Rational Polynomial Coordinate Transformation
	C-11 Transformation Using Homogeneous Coordinates
	References
	Problems
Appendix D: Development of Collinearity Condition Equations
	D-1. Introduction
	D-2. Rotation in Terms of Omega, Phi, and Kappa
	D-3. Development of the Collinearity Condition Equations
	D-4. Homogeneous Representation of the Collinearity Equations
	D-5. Linearization of the Collinearity Equations
	D-6. Applications of Collinearity
	D-7. Development of the Coplanarity Condition Equation
	D-8. Linearization of the Coplanarity Equation
	D-9. Rotation in Terms of Azimuth, Tilt, and Swing
	D-10. Collinearity Equations Using Azimuth-Tilt-Swing Rotation
	D-11. Converting from One Rotation System to the Other
	References
	Problems
Appendix E: Digital Resampling
	E-1. Introduction
	E-2. Nearest Neighbor
	E-3. Bilinear Interpolation
	E-4. Bicubic Interpolation
	E-5. Discussion of the Three Methods
	References
	Problems
Appendix F: Conversions Between Object Space Coordinate Systems
	F-1. Introduction
	F-2. Standard Ellipsoid Constants for GRS80
	F-3. Conversion Between Geodetic and Geocentric Coordinates
	F-4. Conversion Between Geocentric and Local Vertical Coordinates
		Step 1: Translation to Local Vertical Origin
		Step 2: Rotation of 90° + λo about the Z′ Axis
		Step 3: Rotation of 90° – ϕο about the X″ Axis
	F-5. Conversion Between Geodetic and Lambert Conformal Conic Coordinates
	F-6. Conversion Between Geodetic and Transverse Mercator Coordinates
	References
	Problems
Index