Elementary surveying. An introduction to geomatics

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 2
ISBN-13: 9780132554343......Page 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS......Page 4
PREFACE......Page 18
Acknowledgments......Page 19
1.1 Definition of Surveying......Page 22
1.2 Geomatics......Page 24
1.3 History of Surveying......Page 25
1.4 Geodetic and Plane Surveys......Page 30
1.5 Importance of Surveying......Page 31
1.6 Specialized Types of Surveys......Page 32
1.7 Surveying Safety......Page 34
1.8 Land and Geographic Information Systems......Page 35
1.9 Federal Surveying and Mapping Agencies......Page 36
1.10 The Surveying Profession......Page 37
1.11 Professional Surveying Organizations......Page 38
1.12 Surveying on the Internet......Page 39
1.13 Future Challenges in Surveying......Page 40
Problems......Page 41
Bibliography......Page 42
2.2 Units of Measurement......Page 44
2.3 International System of Units (SI)......Page 46
2.4 Significant Figures......Page 48
2.5 Rounding Off Numbers......Page 50
2.6 Field Notes......Page 51
2.7 General Requirements of Handwritten Field Notes......Page 52
2.8 Types of Field Books......Page 53
2.10 Arrangements of Notes......Page 54
2.11 Suggestions for Recording Notes......Page 56
2.12 Introduction to Data Collectors......Page 57
2.13 Transfer of Files from Data Collectors......Page 60
2.14 Digital Data File Management......Page 62
2.15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Data Collectors......Page 63
Problems......Page 64
Bibliography......Page 65
3.2 Direct and Indirect Observations......Page 66
3.4 Mistakes......Page 67
3.6 Types of Errors......Page 68
3.7 Precision and Accuracy......Page 69
3.9 Probability......Page 70
3.10 Most Probable Value......Page 71
3.12 Occurrence of Random Errors......Page 72
3.14 Measures of Precision......Page 76
3.16 The 50, 90, and 95 Percent Errors......Page 79
3.17 Error Propagation......Page 81
3.19 Conditional Adjustment of Observations......Page 86
3.20 Weights of Observations......Page 87
3.21 Least-Squares Adjustment......Page 88
3.22 Using Software......Page 89
Problems......Page 90
Bibliography......Page 92
4.2 Definitions......Page 94
4.3 North American Vertical Datum......Page 96
4.4 Curvature and Refraction......Page 97
4.5 Methods for Determining Differences in Elevation......Page 99
4.6 Categories of Levels......Page 106
4.7 Telescopes......Page 107
4.8 Level Vials......Page 108
4.9 Tilting Levels......Page 110
4.10 Automatic Levels......Page 111
4.11 Digital Levels......Page 112
4.13 Hand Level......Page 114
4.14 Level Rods......Page 115
4.15 Testing and Adjusting Levels......Page 117
Problems......Page 121
Bibliography......Page 123
5.2 Carrying and Setting Up a Level......Page 124
5.3 Duties of a Rodperson......Page 126
5.4 Differential Leveling......Page 127
5.5 Precision......Page 133
5.6 Adjustments of Simple Level Circuits......Page 134
5.7 Reciprocal Leveling......Page 135
5.8 Three-Wire Leveling......Page 136
5.9 Profile Leveling......Page 138
5.10 Grid, Cross-Section, or Borrow-Pit Leveling......Page 142
5.12 Sources of Error in Leveling......Page 143
5.13 Mistakes......Page 145
5.15 Using Software......Page 146
Problems......Page 148
Bibliography......Page 150
6.2 Summary of Methods for Making Linear Measurements......Page 152
6.4 Odometer Readings......Page 153
6.8 Introduction to Taping......Page 154
6.9 Taping Equipment and Accessories......Page 155
6.10 Care of Taping Equipment......Page 156
6.11 Taping on Level Ground......Page 157
6.12 Horizontal Measurements on Sloping Ground......Page 159
6.13 Slope Measurements......Page 161
6.14 Sources of Error in Taping......Page 162
6.15 Tape Problems......Page 166
6.16 Combined Corrections in a Taping Problem......Page 168
6.17 Introduction......Page 169
6.18 Propagation of Electromagnetic Energy......Page 170
6.19 Principles of Electronic Distance Measurement......Page 173
6.20 Electro-Optical Instruments......Page 174
6.21 Total Station Instruments......Page 177
6.22 EDM Instruments Without Reflectors......Page 178
6.23 Computing Horizontal Lengths from Slope Distances......Page 179
6.24 Errors in Electronic Distance Measurement......Page 181
Problems......Page 186
Bibliography......Page 189
7.2 Units of Angle Measurement......Page 190
7.3 Kinds of Horizontal Angles......Page 191
7.4 Direction of a Line......Page 192
7.5 Azimuths......Page 193
7.6 Bearings......Page 194
7.7 Comparison of Azimuths and Bearings......Page 195
7.8 Computing Azimuths......Page 196
7.9 Computing Bearings......Page 198
7.10 The Compass and the Earth’s Magnetic Field......Page 200
7.11 Magnetic Declination......Page 201
7.12 Variations in Magnetic Declination......Page 202
7.13 Software for Determining Magnetic Declination......Page 204
7.14 Local Attraction......Page 205
7.15 Typical Magnetic Declination Problems......Page 206
Problems......Page 208
Bibliography......Page 210
8.2 Characteristics of Total Station Instruments......Page 212
8.3 Functions Performed by Total Station Instruments......Page 215
8.4 Parts of a Total Station Instrument......Page 216
8.5 Handling and Setting Up a Total Station Instrument......Page 220
8.6 Servo-Driven and Remotely Operated Total Station Instruments......Page 222
8.7 Relationship of Angles and Distances......Page 224
8.8 Observing Horizontal Angles with Total Station Instruments......Page 225
8.9 Observing Horizontal Angles by the Direction Method......Page 227
8.10 Closing the Horizon......Page 228
8.11 Observing Deflection Angles......Page 230
8.13 Observing Vertical Angles......Page 232
8.14 Sights and Marks......Page 234
8.15 Prolonging a Straight Line......Page 235
8.16 Balancing-In......Page 237
8.17 Random Traverse......Page 238
8.18 Total Stations for Determining Elevation Differences......Page 239
8.19 Adjustment of Total Station Instruments and Their Accessories......Page 240
8.20 Sources of Error in Total Station Work......Page 243
8.22 Mistakes......Page 249
Problems......Page 250
Bibliography......Page 251
9.1 Introduction......Page 252
9.2 Observation of Traverse Angles or Directions......Page 254
9.3 Observation of Traverse Lengths......Page 255
9.5 Referencing Traverse Stations......Page 256
9.6 Traverse Field Notes......Page 258
9.7 Angle Misclosure......Page 259
9.8 Traversing with Total Station Instruments......Page 260
9.9 Radial Traversing......Page 261
9.10 Sources of Error in Traversing......Page 262
Problems......Page 263
10.1 Introduction......Page 266
10.2 Balancing Angles......Page 267
10.3 Computation of Preliminary Azimuths or Bearings......Page 269
10.4 Departures and Latitudes......Page 270
10.6 Traverse Linear Misclosure and Relative Precision......Page 272
10.7 Traverse Adjustment......Page 273
10.8 Rectangular Coordinates......Page 276
10.9 Alternative Methods for Making Traverse Computations......Page 277
10.10 Inversing......Page 281
10.11 Computing Final Adjusted Traverse Lengths and Directions......Page 282
10.12 Coordinate Computations in Boundary Surveys......Page 284
10.13 Use of Open Traverses......Page 286
10.14 State Plane Coordinate Systems......Page 289
10.16 Locating Blunders in Traverse Observations......Page 290
Problems......Page 293
Bibliography......Page 296
11.1 Introduction......Page 298
11.2 Coordinate Forms of Equations for Lines and Circles......Page 299
11.3 Perpendicular Distance from a Point to a Line......Page 301
11.4 Intersection of Two Lines, Both Having Known Directions......Page 303
11.5 Intersection of a Line with a Circle......Page 305
11.6 Intersection of Two Circles......Page 308
11.7 Three-Point Resection......Page 310
11.8 Two-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation......Page 313
11.9 Inaccessible Point Problem......Page 318
11.10 Three-Dimensional Two-Point Resection......Page 320
11.11 Software......Page 323
Problems......Page 324
Bibliography......Page 328
12.2 Methods of Measuring Area......Page 330
12.3 Area by Division Into Simple Figures......Page 331
12.4 Area by Offsets from Straight Lines......Page 332
12.5 Area by Coordinates......Page 334
12.6 Area by Double-Meridian Distance Method......Page 338
12.7 Area of Parcels with Circular Boundaries......Page 341
12.8 Partitioning of Lands......Page 342
12.9 Area by Measurements from Maps......Page 346
12.10 Software......Page 348
Problems......Page 349
Bibliography......Page 351
13.1 Introduction......Page 352
13.2 Overview of GPS......Page 353
13.3 The GPS Signal......Page 356
13.4 Reference Coordinate Systems......Page 358
13.5 Fundamentals of Satellite Positioning......Page 366
13.6 Errors in Observations......Page 369
13.7 Differential Positioning......Page 377
13.8 Kinematic Methods......Page 379
13.9 Relative Positioning......Page 380
13.10 Other Satellite Navigation Systems......Page 383
13.11 The Future......Page 385
Problems......Page 386
Bibliography......Page 387
14.1 Introduction......Page 388
14.2 Field Procedures in Satellite Surveys......Page 390
14.3 Planning Satellite Surveys......Page 393
14.4 Performing Static Surveys......Page 405
14.5 Data Processing and Analysis......Page 407
14.6 Sources of Errors in Satellite Surveys......Page 414
Problems......Page 416
Bibliography......Page 418
15.1 Introduction......Page 420
15.2 Planning of Kinematic Surveys......Page 421
15.3 Initialization......Page 423
15.4 Equipment Used in Kinematic Surveys......Page 424
15.5 Methods Used in Kinematic Surveys......Page 426
15.6 Performing Post-Processed Kinematic Surveys......Page 429
15.7 Communication in Real-Time Kinematic Surveys......Page 432
15.8 Real-Time Networks......Page 433
15.9 Performing Real-Time Kinematic Surveys......Page 434
15.10 Machine Control......Page 435
Problems......Page 439
Bibliography......Page 440
16.1 Introduction......Page 442
16.2 Fundamental Condition of Least Squares......Page 444
16.3 Least-Squares Adjustment by the Observation Equation Method......Page 445
16.4 Matrix Methods in Least-Squares Adjustment......Page 449
16.5 Matrix Equations for Precisions of Adjusted Quantities......Page 451
16.6 Least-Squares Adjustment of Leveling Circuits......Page 453
16.7 Propagation of Errors......Page 457
16.8 Least-Squares Adjustment of GNSS Baseline Vectors......Page 458
16.9 Least-Squares Adjustment of Conventional Horizontal Plane Surveys......Page 464
16.10 The Error Ellipse......Page 473
16.11 Adjustment Procedures......Page 478
16.12 Other Measures of Precision for Horizontal Stations......Page 479
16.14 Conclusions......Page 481
Problems......Page 482
Bibliography......Page 487
17.1 Introduction......Page 488
17.3 Map Scale......Page 489
17.4 Control for Mapping Surveys......Page 491
17.5 Contours......Page 492
17.7 Direct and Indirect Methods of Locating Contours......Page 495
17.8 Digital Elevation Models and Automated Contouring Systems......Page 498
17.9 Basic Field Methods for Locating Topographic Details......Page 500
17.10 Three-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation......Page 509
17.11 Selection of Field Method......Page 510
17.12 Working with Data Collectors and Field-to-Finish Software......Page 511
17.13 Hydrographic Surveys......Page 514
17.14 Sources of Error in Mapping Surveys......Page 518
Problems......Page 519
Bibliography......Page 521
18.1 Introduction......Page 524
18.2 Availability of Maps and Related Information......Page 525
18.4 Accuracy Standards for Mapping......Page 526
18.5 Manual and Computer-Aided Drafting Procedures......Page 528
18.6 Map Design......Page 529
18.7 Map Layout......Page 531
18.8 Basic Map Plotting Procedures......Page 533
18.10 Plotting Contours......Page 535
18.11 Lettering......Page 536
18.12 Cartographic Map Elements......Page 537
18.14 Automated Mapping and Computer-Aided Drafting Systems......Page 540
18.15 Impacts of Modern Land and Geographic Information Systems on Mapping......Page 546
Problems......Page 547
Bibliography......Page 549
19.1 Introduction......Page 550
19.2 The Ellipsoid and Geoid......Page 551
19.3 The Conventional Terrestrial Pole......Page 553
19.4 Geodetic Position and Ellipsoidal Radii of Curvature......Page 555
19.5 Geoid Undulation and Deflection of the Vertical......Page 557
19.6 U.S. Reference Frames......Page 559
19.7 Accuracy Standards and Specifications for Control Surveys......Page 568
19.9 Hierarchy of the National Horizontal Control Network......Page 571
19.11 Control Point Descriptions......Page 572
19.12 Field Procedures for Traditional Horizontal Control Surveys......Page 575
19.13 Field Procedures for Vertical Control Surveys......Page 580
19.14 Reduction of Field Observations to Their Geodetic Values......Page 585
19.15 Geodetic Position Computations......Page 598
19.16 The Local Geodetic Coordinate System......Page 601
19.17 Three-Dimensional Coordinate Computations......Page 602
Problems......Page 605
Bibliography......Page 608
20.1 Introduction......Page 610
20.2 Projections Used in State Plane Coordinate Systems......Page 611
20.3 Lambert Conformal Conic Projection......Page 614
20.4 Transverse Mercator Projection......Page 615
20.5 State Plane Coordinates in NAD27 and NAD83......Page 616
20.6 Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Lambert Conformal Conic System......Page 617
20.7 Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Transverse Mercator System......Page 622
20.8 Reduction of Distances and Angles to State Plane Coordinate Grids......Page 629
20.9 Computing State Plane Coordinates of Traverse Stations......Page 638
20.10 Surveys Extending from One Zone to Another......Page 641
20.11 Conversions Between SPCS27 and SPCS83......Page 642
20.12 The Universal Transverse Mercator Projection......Page 643
20.13 Other Map Projections......Page 644
20.14 Map Projection Software......Page 648
Problems......Page 649
Bibliography......Page 652
21.1 Introduction......Page 654
21.2 Categories of Land Surveys......Page 655
21.3 Historical Perspectives......Page 656
21.4 Property Description by Metes and Bounds......Page 657
21.5 Property Description by Block-and-Lot System......Page 660
21.7 Retracement Surveys......Page 662
21.8 Subdivision Surveys......Page 665
21.9 Partitioning Land......Page 667
21.10 Registration of Title......Page 668
21.12 Condominium Surveys......Page 669
21.15 Mistakes......Page 676
Problems......Page 677
Bibliography......Page 679
22.1 Introduction......Page 680
22.2 Instructions for Surveys of the Public Lands......Page 681
22.3 Initial Point......Page 684
22.4 Principal Meridian......Page 685
22.5 Baseline......Page 686
22.7 Guide Meridians......Page 687
22.8 Township Exteriors, Meridional (Range) Lines, and Latitudinal (Township) Lines......Page 688
22.10 Subdivision of a Quadrangle into Townships......Page 689
22.11 Subdivision of a Township into Sections......Page 691
22.12 Subdivision of Sections......Page 692
22.15 Outline of Subdivision Steps......Page 693
22.17 Witness Corners......Page 695
22.19 Lost and Obliterated Corners......Page 696
22.21 Descriptions by Township Section and Smaller Subdivision......Page 699
22.22 BLM Land Information System......Page 700
22.24 Mistakes......Page 701
Problems......Page 702
Bibliography......Page 704
23.1 Introduction......Page 706
23.2 Specialized Equipment for Construction Surveys......Page 707
23.3 Horizontal and Vertical Control......Page 710
23.4 Staking Out a Pipeline......Page 712
23.5 Staking Pipeline Grades......Page 713
23.6 Staking Out a Building......Page 715
23.7 Staking Out Highways......Page 719
23.8 Other Construction Surveys......Page 724
23.9 Construction Surveys Using Total Station Instruments......Page 725
23.10 Construction Surveys Using GNSS Equipment......Page 727
23.11 Machine Guidance and Control......Page 730
23.12 As-Built Surveys with Laser Scanning......Page 731
23.13 Sources of Error in Construction Surveys......Page 732
Problems......Page 733
Bibliography......Page 735
24.1 Introduction......Page 736
24.2 Degree of Circular Curve......Page 737
24.3 Definitions and Derivation of Circular Curve Formulas......Page 739
24.4 Circular Curve Stationing......Page 741
24.5 General Procedure of Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles......Page 742
24.6 Computing Deflection Angles and Chords......Page 744
24.7 Notes for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords......Page 746
24.8 Detailed Procedures for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords......Page 747
24.9 Setups on Curve......Page 748
24.10 Metric Circular Curves by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords......Page 749
24.11 Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Total Chords......Page 751
24.12 Computation of Coordinates on a Circular Curve......Page 752
24.13 Circular Curve Layout by Coordinates......Page 754
24.14 Curve Stakeout Using GNSS Receivers and Robotic Total Stations......Page 759
24.15 Circular Curve Layout by Offsets......Page 760
24.16 Special Circular Curve Problems......Page 763
24.18 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves......Page 764
24.19 Spirals......Page 765
24.20 Computation of “As-Built” Circular Alignments......Page 770
24.22 Mistakes 752 Problems......Page 773
Problems......Page 774
Bibliography......Page 776
25.1 Introduction......Page 778
25.2 General Equation of a Vertical Parabolic Curve......Page 779
25.3 Equation of an Equal Tangent Vertical Parabolic Curve......Page 780
25.5 Vertical Curve Computations Using the Tangent Offset Equation......Page 782
25.6 Equal Tangent Property of a Parabola......Page 786
25.8 Staking a Vertical Parabolic Curve......Page 787
25.10 Computations for an Unequal Tangent Vertical Curve......Page 788
25.11 Designing a Curve to Pass Through a Fixed Point......Page 791
25.12 Sight Distance......Page 792
25.13 Sources of Error in Laying Out Vertical Curves......Page 794
Problems......Page 795
Bibliography......Page 797
26.2 Methods of Volume Measurement......Page 798
26.3 The Cross-Section Method......Page 799
26.4 Types of Cross Sections......Page 800
26.5 Average-End-Area Formula......Page 801
26.6 Determining End Areas......Page 802
26.7 Computing Slope Intercepts......Page 805
26.8 Prismoidal Formula......Page 807
26.9 Volume Computations......Page 809
26.10 Unit-Area, or Borrow-Pit, Method......Page 811
26.11 Contour-Area Method......Page 812
26.12 Measuring Volumes of Water Discharge......Page 814
26.13 Software......Page 815
Problems......Page 816
Bibliography......Page 819
27.1 Introduction......Page 820
27.2 Uses of Photogrammetry......Page 821
27.3 Aerial Cameras......Page 822
27.4 Types of Aerial Photographs......Page 824
27.5 Vertical Aerial Photographs......Page 825
27.6 Scale of a Vertical Photograph......Page 827
27.7 Ground Coordinates from a Single Vertical Photograph......Page 831
27.8 Relief Displacement on a Vertical Photograph......Page 832
27.9 Flying Height of a Vertical Photograph......Page 834
27.10 Stereoscopic Parallax......Page 835
27.11 Stereoscopic Viewing......Page 838
27.12 Stereoscopic Measurement of Parallax......Page 840
27.13 Analytical Photogrammetry......Page 841
27.14 Stereoscopic Plotting Instruments......Page 842
27.15 Orthophotos......Page 847
27.16 Ground Control for Photogrammetry......Page 848
27.17 Flight Planning......Page 849
27.18 Airborne Laser-Mapping Systems......Page 851
27.19 Remote Sensing......Page 852
27.20 Software......Page 858
27.22 Mistakes......Page 859
Problems......Page 860
Bibliography......Page 863
28.1 Introduction......Page 864
28.4 Spatial Data......Page 867
28.5 Nonspatial Data......Page 873
28.6 Data Format Conversions......Page 874
28.7 Creating GIS Databases......Page 877
28.9 GIS Analytical Functions......Page 883
28.11 Data Sources......Page 888
Problems......Page 890
Bibliography......Page 892
APPENDIX A: DUMPY LEVELS, TRANSITS, AND THEODOLITES......Page 894
APPENDIX B: EXAMPLE NOTEFORMS......Page 909
APPENDIX C: ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS......Page 916
APPENDIX D: USING THE WORKSHEETS FROM THE COMPANION WEBSITE......Page 932
APPENDIX E: INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES......Page 938
APPENDIX F: U.S. STATE PLANE COORDINATE SYSTEM DEFINING PARAMETERS......Page 944
APPENDIX G: ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS......Page 948
A......Page 954
B......Page 955
C......Page 956
D......Page 959
E......Page 960
F......Page 961
G......Page 962
H......Page 964
L......Page 965
M......Page 967
N......Page 969
P......Page 970
R......Page 972
S......Page 973
T......Page 976
V......Page 978
Z......Page 979