Elementary Food Science

Foreword
Preface to 5th Edition
Contents
About the Authors
Part I: Interrelated Food Science Topics
	1: Why Food Science?
		1	 Introduction
			1.1	 Food Technology and Food Science
			1.2	 Definitions for Food
			1.3	 History of Food Technology and Processing
		2	 Origins of Food Science and Food Technology
			2.1	 Starting with Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries
			2.2	 Food Chemistry
			2.3	 Food Microbiology
			2.4	 Food Engineering and Processing
			2.5	 Food Analysis
		3	 Entering the Twentieth Century
			3.1	 The Interdisciplinary Years
			3.2	 Advances in Technology and Quality from 1960s to 1970s
			3.3	 Progress from 1980s to 2000s
			3.4	 Computerization and the Internet
			3.5	 Food Consumer Trends for the Twenty-First Century
		4	 Food Technology and Society
			4.1	 The Media and Food Literacy
			4.2	 Food Safety
			4.3	 Nutrition, Food and Well-being
			4.4	 Food and Public Health
			4.5	 Food Agro-business and Development
			4.6	 Food Security
		5	 Food Science Education Outcomes
			5.1	 IFT Certified Programs
			5.2	 Characteristics of Food Science Programs
			5.3	 Other Food Related Programs
			5.4	 Careers in Food Science
		Appendices
			A 1a: Sources of Food Science and Nutrition Information
			A 1b: Websites
			A 2a: IFT Standards (Competencies) and Leaning Outcomes for Food Science and Food Technology Programs
			A 2b: IFT Standards (Competencies) and Leaning Outcomes
			A 3: Careers in Food Science
			A 4: A Sample of Some Food Science Text Books
		References
	2: Food-Largest of All Industries
		1	 Introduction
			1.1	 Evidence That Food Is One Of the Largest of Industries
			1.2	 North American Industry Classification System (NAICS)
			1.3	 Industry Classification Codes from Other Parts of the World
		2	 The North American Food Industry
			2.1	 Classification of the Food Industry
			2.2	 The US Agri-Food Industry
				2.2.1	 Definition of the Food Industry
				2.2.2	 Characteristics of the US Agri-food industry
			2.3	 The Food Manufacturing Sector
			2.4	 The US Foodservice Sector
			2.5	 The Food Dollar Expenditure
			2.6	 The US Food Retail Sector
			2.7	 Canadian Food Manufacturing
			2.8	 The North American Food Industry Summary
		3	 Global Food Industry
			3.1	 Global Food and Beverage Manufacturing
			3.2	 European Union Food Manufacturing
			3.3	 Brazil
			3.4	 Russia
			3.5	 India
			3.6	 China
			3.7	 Hong Kong
			3.8	 ASEAN Countries
			3.9	 Australia & New Zealand
			3.10	 Global Food Industry Summary and Limitations
		Appendices
			Appendix 1
				A1A: North American Industrial Codes for Agriculture, Fishing and Hunting Industries
				A1B: North American Industrial Codes for food manufacturing related industries
				A1C: North American Industrial Codes for Food Related Industries
				A1D. North American Industrial Codes for food merchant industries
				A1E. North American Industrial Codes for food related industries
			Appendix 2
				A2A: North American Industrial Codes for Manufacturing Industries
				A2B: Comparing NAICS and Other Codes for Food Manufacturing
			Appendix 3
				A3A: European Union NACES Codes for Food Manufacturing
				A3B: European Union NACE Codes for Food Manufacturing
			Appendix 4: United States Economic Indicators (2008–2018)
		References
	3: Food Regulatory Agencies
		1	 Introduction
			1.1	 Overview of Agencies
				1.1.1	 What Is Regulated by US Agencies
				1.1.2	 Key Milestones in US Food Law
			1.2	 Food and Drug Administration
				1.2.1	 What Products Does the FDA Regulate?
				1.2.2	 Recalls, Outbreaks & Emergencies
				1.2.3	 Guidance & Regulation
				1.2.4	 Retail Food Protection: The Food Code
				1.2.5	 Ingredients, Packaging and Labeling
				1.2.6	 Food Additives and Color Additives
				1.2.7	 Packaging and Food Contact Substances
				1.2.8	 Foodborne Illness
				1.2.9	 Food Adulteration
				1.2.10	 Misbranding
				1.2.11	 Inspection of Food Manufacturing Facilities
			1.3	 Centre for Disease Control & Prevention (CDC)
			1.4	 U.S. Public Health Service
			1.5	 Food Safety and Inspection Services (FSIS)
				1.5.1	 The Meat Inspection Bureau
				1.5.2	 The Poultry Inspection Service
			1.6	 The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
		2	 Other US Regulatory and Inspection Agencies
			2.1	 The Internal Revenue Service (IRS)
			2.2	 The National Bureau of Standards (NBS)
			2.3	 The Federal Trade Commission (FTC)
			2.4	 Trade and Professional Organizations
				2.4.1	 The Institute of Food Technologists (IFT)
				2.4.2	 Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (American Dietetic Association)
				2.4.3	 The National Restaurant Association (NRA)
				2.4.4	 The Educational Foundation of the National Restaurant Association (EF)
				2.4.5	 The Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI)
				2.4.6	 The American Council on Science and Health
				2.4.7	 The National Environmental Health Association (NEHA)
				2.4.8	 The International Association of Milk, Food and Environmental Sanitarians (IAMFES)
				2.4.9	 The Frozen Food Industry Coordinating Committee
				2.4.10	 The National Pest Control Association (NPCA)
				2.4.11	 National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) International
				2.4.12	 Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL)
		3	 EU Food Regulatory Agencies
			3.1	 A Primer on the European Union
			3.2	 The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)
			3.3	 European General Food Law
		4	 Food Regulation in China
			4.1	 Food Regulatory Agencies in China
			4.2	 China’s General Food Hygiene Laws
		5	 International Food Standards
			5.1	 Codex Alimentarius Commission
			5.2	 International Organization of Standardization (ISO)
		6	 Conclusion
		Appendices
			Appendix 1: Products Classes Regulated by the FDA
			Appendix 2
				A2a: FDA Activities and Processes (2014)
				A2b: FDA Activities and Processes (2019)
			Appendix 3: Nine Forms of Food Adulteration
			Appendix 4: Selected ISO Standards Related to Foods
		References
	4: Food Labels
		1	 Introduction
			1.1	 Background of Food Labeling Legislation
			1.2	 Definition of Food Label and Labeling
			1.3	 Why Food Labeling
			1.4	 Industry Guide for Food Labeling
		2	 Labeling Requirements
			2.1	 General Principles
			2.2	 Standard of Identity for Food
				2.2.1	 The Statement of Identity
				2.2.2	 Imitation Foods and Fake Foods
			2.3	 Misbranding of Food
				2.3.1	 General Principles
				2.3.2	 Penalties for Misbranding
			2.4	 Ingredients List
			2.5	 Other Labeling Items
				2.5.1	 Name of Manufacture, Distributor or Packer
				2.5.2	 Net Quantity of Product
			2.6	 Vending Machine Food Labeling
			2.7	 Below Standard Fill
		3	 Specific Requirements
			3.1	 Spices, Flavorings, Colorings and Preservatives
			3.2	 Juices and Concentrates
		4	 Food Allergens
			4.1	 Food Allergens Labeling and Consumer Protection Act
			4.2	 Applicability of Allergen Labeling
			4.3	 Exemptions from Allergen Labeling
			4.4	 Precautionary Food Allergen Labeling
		5	 Nutrition Labeling
			5.1	 Characteristics of Nutrition Labeling
			5.2	 Revised Nutrition Labeling Requirements
			5.3	 Requirements for Nutrition Labeling
				5.3.1	 General Principles
				5.3.2	 Nutrient Analysis
			5.4	 Nutrition Declaration
				5.4.1	 Food Energy, Calories
				5.4.2	 Total Fats, Saturated Fats
				5.4.3	 Trans-Fats
				5.4.4	 Cholesterol
				5.4.5	 Sodium
				5.4.6	 Carbohydrates, Total
				5.4.7	 Dietary Fiber
				5.4.8	 Total Sugar and Added Sugar
				5.4.9	 Protein
				5.4.10	 Vitamins and Minerals
				5.4.11	 Voluntary Declarations of Nutrients
			5.5	 Exemptions and Exceptions from Nutrition Labeling
				5.5.1	 Small Businesses Exemptions
				5.5.2	 Ready-to-Eat Meals
				5.5.3	 Raw Vegetables, Fruits and Fish
			5.6	 Menu Calorie Labeling
				5.6.1	 Basic Principles
				5.6.2	 Exemptions from Menu Calorie Labeling
				5.6.3	 Discussions of Menu Labeling
		6	 Nutrient Content Claims
			6.1	 The Gist of a Nutrient Content Claim
			6.2	 Approved Nutrient Content Claims
			6.3	 Statements of Disclosure
			6.4	 Front-of-Pack Labelling
		7	 Health Claims
			7.1	 General Health Claim Requirements
				7.1.1	 General Principles
				7.1.2	 Forms of Statements
				7.1.3	 Substances
				7.1.4	 Disease or Health Related Conditions
				7.1.5	 Disease Risk and Biomarkers for Disease
				7.1.6	 Validity of Claims
				7.1.7	 Health Claim Application Process
			7.2	 Examples of Current Health Claims
			7.3	 Qualified Health Claims
			7.4	 Organic Food Labeling
				7.4.1	 General Principles
				7.4.2	 State Organic Production Certification of Nationwide Standards
				7.4.3	 Grades of Organically Produced Products
			7.5	 Gluten Free Labeling
				7.5.1	 General Principles
				7.5.2	 Hydrolyzed or Fermented Foods
			7.6	 Conclusions
		References
	5: Quality and Sensory Evaluation of Food
		1	 Introduction to Food Quality
			1.1	 Definitions of Quality
			1.2	 Food Quality Attributes
		2	 Food Sensory Quality
			2.1	 Sensory Characteristics
			2.2	 Appearance
			2.3	 Texture
			2.4	 Flavor
		3	 Sensory Evaluation
			3.1	 Discrimination Tests
			3.2	 Descriptive Testing
			3.3	 Affective Testing
		4	 Instrumental Sensory Analysis
			4.1	 Objective Analysis of Food Quality
			4.2	 Colorimetry of Foods
			4.3	 Texture Monitoring Instruments
			4.4	 Electronic Noses
		5	 Processed foods quality and health
		References
	6: Consumer Food Literacy
		1	 Introduction
			1.1	 General Principles
			1.2	 Critical Thinking, Food Literacy and the Press Media
			1.3	 The Western Diet and Health
			1.4	 Nutrition Transitions and Income
			1.5	 Health and Processed Foods
		2	 Food Literacy and Cooking
			2.1	 Food skills
			2.2	 Frequency of Home Cooking
			2.3	 Health Promotion and Food Literacy
		3	 Food Literacy in Middle and High Schools
			3.1	 Nutrition Education in High Schools
			3.2	 Standardized Food and Nutrition Education in Schools
		4	 Adult Food Literacy
			4.1	 Influences and Correlations for Food Literacy
			4.2	 Standards for Food Literacy
			4.3	 Food and Nutrition Controversies and Literacy
			4.4	 Adult Learning and Food Literacy
		5	 Food and Nutrition Education
			5.1	 The Nature of Food and Nutrition Education
			5.2	 The Food and Nutrition System
			5.3	 Kinds of Evidence for Food and Nutrition Policy
			5.4	 Resolving Food and Nutrition Controversies
		6	 Debating Fresh and Processed Food-Not
			6.1	 General Principles
			6.2	 Selection of baseline foods
			6.3	 Comparing Fresh with Minimal Processing Food
			6.4	 Unpredictable Health and Safety Outcomes
			6.5	 One Dimensional Focus on Food Merits
			6.6	 Confounding Effects of Different Food Groups
			6.7	 Unprocessed Fresh Food Perishability
			6.8	 The Total Diet Approach
		7	 Conclusions
		References
Part II: Food Safety and Sanitation
	7: Food Microbes, Quality and Fermentation
		1	 Introduction
			1.1	 Scope of Food Microbiology
			1.2	 Sources of Microbes in Foods
			1.3	 Structure and Shape of Microbes
			1.4	 Size of Microbes
			1.5	 Motility in Microbes
		2	 Growth of Microbes
			2.1	 Bacteria Numbers and Its Significance
			2.2	 Monitoring Growth of Bacteria
				2.2.1	 Culture Methods
				2.2.2	 ATP Bioluminescence
				2.2.3	 DNA Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
		3	 Factors Influencing Microbial Growth
			3.1	 Extrinsic and Intrinsic Parameters
			3.2	 Moisture
			3.3	 The pH and Titrable Acidity of Food
			3.4	 Redox Potential (Eh)
			3.5	 Nutrient Content
			3.6	 Antimicrobial Agents and Preservatives
			3.7	 Temperature
			3.8	 Oxygen Requirements
			3.9	 Potentially Hazardous Foods and Temperature Control for Safety
		4	 Effects of Microbes on Foods
			4.1	 Undesirable Changes in Foods
			4.2	 Food Spoilage
		5	 Food Fermentation
			5.1	 Benefits and Advantages of Fermentation
			5.2	 Food Fermentation for Preservation
			5.3	 Fermented Dairy Products
			5.4	 Alcoholic and Acetic Acid Fermentation
			5.5	 Fermented Baked Products
			5.6	 Traditional Fermented Products of the World
			5.7	 Regulation of Microbial Food Cultures
			5.8	 United States Fermented Food Regulations
		References
	8: Microbial Foodborne Disease Outbreaks
		1	 Introduction
			1.1	 Food and Diseases
			1.2	 Foodborne Hazards
			1.3	 Food Infections and Outbreaks
			1.4	 Epidemiology of Foodborne Disease
			1.5	 Economic Impact of Foodborne Disease
			1.6	 Under Reporting Foodborne Illnesses
			1.7	 Microbes Implicated in Foodborne Disease
			1.8	 Attribution to Different Foods
		2	 Foodborne Disease and Infections
			2.1	 FoodNet and Sources of Information
			2.2	 Norovirus (Norwalk Virus)
			2.3	 Campylobacter, Campylobacteriosis
			2.4	 Salmonellosis and Typhoid fever
			2.5	 Shigellosis
			2.6	 Vibriosis (Vibrio Illness)
			2.7	 Foodborne Tuberculosis
			2.8	 Brucellosis
			2.9	 Other Food Infections
		3	 Food Intoxications
			3.1	 “Red Tide” Shellfish Poisoning
			3.2	 Staphylococcal Poisoning
			3.3	 Botulism
			3.4	 Clostridium Perfringens Poisoning
			3.5	 Other Food Intoxications
		4	 Foodborne Parasitic Diseases
			4.1	 Protozoa and Helminths
			4.2	 Trichinellosis or Trichinosis
			4.3	 Amebiasis
			4.4	 Giardia Lamblia
			4.5	 Parasitic Tapeworms
		References
	9: Food Safety and Sanitation
		1	 Introduction
			1.1	 Safety and the Agri-Food Industry
			1.2	 Food Safety Oversight by the FDA
			1.3	 Trending New Challenges for Food Safety
			1.4	 Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures
			1.5	 Risk Assessment for Foodborne Infections
		2	 Principles of Food Hygiene
			2.1	 Home Hygiene and Food Safety
			2.2	 Proper Food Handling
			2.3	 Cleanliness and Cleaning
			2.4	 Cross Contamination Prevention
			2.5	 Cooking to High Internal Temperatures
			2.6	 Cooling and Chilling
			2.7	 Risky Food Handling
		3	 Retail Hygiene and Food Handling
			3.1	 Fresh Meat Handling
			3.2	 Safe Handling Fresh Produce
			3.3	 Frozen Foods
			3.4	 Canned Foods
			3.5	 Food Manufacturing Plant Sanitation
		4	 Foodservice Hygiene
			4.1	 Premises and Utensils
			4.2	 Equipment and Facilities
			4.3	 Food Preparation and Handling
			4.4	 Personnel Health and Personal Hygiene
			4.5	 Waste Disposal
			4.6	 Cleaning and Sanitization
			4.7	 Sources of Advice for Food Businesses
		References
	10: Food Safety Management, GMP & HACCP
		1	 Good Manufacturing Practices
			1.1	 Introduction
			1.2	 Basic Provisions for GMP
				1.2.1	 Personnel Disease Control and Hygiene
				1.2.2	 Education, Training and Supervision
			1.3	 Building and Facilities for GMP
				1.3.1	 Plant and Grounds Constructions
				1.3.2	 Plant Exterior and Grounds
				1.3.3	 Sanitary Operations
				1.3.4	 Sanitary Facilities and Controls
				1.3.5	 Water Supply and Plumbing
				1.3.6	 Sewage Disposal
				1.3.7	 Locker and Toilet Facilities
			1.4	 GMP and Equipment
				1.4.1	 Equipment and Utensils Design & Construction
				1.4.2	 Maintenance of Equipment and Utensils
			1.5	 GMP and Production, Process Control
				1.5.1	 Processes and Controls
				1.5.2	 Receiving and Storage
		2	 Good Agricultural Practices (GAP)
			2.1	 Water Use and GAP
			2.2	 Manure and Biosolids
			2.3	 GAP and Personal Hygiene
		3	 Sanitation Performance Standards
			3.1	 Revised Sanitation Standard Operation Standards
			3.2	 Construction Sanitary Performance Standards
			3.3	 Lighting and Ventilation Sanitation Performance Standards
		4	 Other Hygiene Codes
			4.1	 The Food Code – United States
			4.2	 Codex Alimentarius Food Hygiene Code
			4.3	 Food Hygiene in the European Union
		5	 Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point
			5.1	 HACCP in the United States
			5.2	 Reasons for HACCP Non-compliance
			5.3	 HACCP in Developing Countries
			5.4	 Seven Stages of HACCP
				5.4.1	 Hazard Analysis
				5.4.2	 Critical Control Points (CCPs)
				5.4.3	 Establish Requirements to Be Met at Each CCP
				5.4.4	 Monitoring Critical Control Points
				5.4.5	 Taking Corrective Actions
				5.4.6	 Setting up a Record Keeping System
				5.4.7	 Verify That the System Is Working
			5.5	 HACCP for Foodservice and Food Retail
		6	 Future of Food Safety Management
			6.1	 Integrated Food safety
			6.2	 FDA Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA)
			6.3	 Threat Analysis Critical Control Points (TACCP) and Vulnerability Analysis Critical Control Points (VACCP)
			6.4	 Limitations
		References
Part III: Food Preservation and Processing
	11: Basic Considerations for Food Processing
		1	 Introduction
			1.1	 General Principles & Scope
			1.2	 Definitions and Significance of Food Processing
			1.3	 Aims and Benefits of Food Processing
				1.3.1	 Value Addition
				1.3.2	 Preservation
				1.3.3	 Safety
		2	 Types of Food Processing
			2.1	 Primary and Secondary Processing
			2.2	 Traditional Versus Modern Food Processing, and Overlaps
			2.3	 Unit Operations for Food Processing
			2.4	 Minimally and Moderately Processed Foods
		3	 Benefits and Downsides of Food Processing
			3.1	 Improved Storage Life by Food Preservation
			3.2	 Improved Sensory Quality
			3.3	 Nutrient Losses and Toxic Compounds
		4	 Additional Consumer Benefits
			4.1	 Novelty and Innovation
			4.2	 Convenience
			4.3	 Processed Foods, the Environment and Development
		5	 Ultra-Processed Foods
			5.1	 Ultra Processed Food and Composition
			5.2	 NOVA Classification of Processed Foods
			5.3	 Criticisms of Ultra-Processed Terminology
			5.4	 How Ultra-Processed Food Affects the Diet
		6	 Alternative Food and Health Relations
			6.1	 Food Technology Access, Decreasing Labor and Rising Obesity
			6.2	 Work Patterns and Food Labor
			6.3	 Policy and Healthy Food Environments
		7	 Conclusions
		References
	12: Thermal Processing and Canning
		1	 Introduction
			1.1	 History of Thermal Processing
			1.2	 Canning Not as We Know It
			1.3	 Economic significance of canned food
		2	 Commercial Sterilization or Canning
			2.1	 Definitions
			2.2	 Structure of the Tin Can
			2.3	 Filling the Cans
				2.3.1	 Liquid in Cans
				2.3.2	 Pretreatment of Foods
				2.3.3	 Vacuum in Cans
				2.3.4	 Obtaining the Vacuum
			2.4	 Sealing the Cans
			2.5	 The Heat Process
		3	 The Conventional Heat-Processing
			3.1	 Chamber Retort
			3.2	 Cooling Heat-Processed Foods
			3.3	 Canning of Acid Foods
		4	 Other Methods of Heat Processing
			4.1	 Continuous Agitating Retort
			4.2	 The Hydrostatic Cooker
			4.3	 Aseptic Fill Method
			4.4	 Cooking Under Pressure
			4.5	 The Sous Vide Process
			4.6	 Microwave Processing
		5	 Containers
			5.1	 Cans
			5.2	 Flexible Pouches
			5.3	 Glass Containers
			5.4	 Microwavable Containers
			5.5	 Plastic, Flexible Containers
		6	 Warehouse Storage of Canned Foods
		7	 FDA Regulations and Safety
		8	 Basic Principles and Examples of Thermal Processing
			8.1	 Temperature and Heat Relations
			8.2	 Heat Capacity
			8.3	 Heat Transfer
				8.3.1	 Conduction
				8.3.2	 Convection
				8.3.3	 Radiation Heat Transfer
				8.3.4	 Heat Transfer in Real Processing Situations
				8.3.5	 Forms of Heating
			8.4	 Cooking and Cooking Methods
				8.4.1	 Cooking methods
				8.4.2	 Cooking and food quality
				8.4.3	 Nutritional effects of cooking
			8.5	 Pasteurization of Liquid Foods
			8.6	 Blanching of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables
		9	 Bacterial Death Kinetics
			9.1	 Rational and Kinetic Considerations
			9.2	 First Order Bacterial Inactivation Kinetics
			9.3	 Decimal Reduction Time (D-Value)
			9.4	 The Z-Value for Processing
			9.5	 Prediction of D-Values and Z-Values for Pasteurization
			9.6	 The Reference F-Value and Lethality
		10	 Estimating Processing Times
			10.1	 Intuitive Estimation of Process Times
			10.2	 Instantaneous F-Value and Lethality Calculations
			10.3	 Total Lethality Calculations
			10.4	 Heat Penetration Studies
			10.5	 Total Lethality Estimation
			10.6	 Cook value
		References
	13: Low-Temperature Preservation
		1	 Introduction
			1.1	 Significance and Benefits of Refrigeration
			1.2	 Refrigeration and Public Health
			1.3	 History of the Pre-mechanized Chilling Industry
			1.4	 Modern Refrigeration Capacity
			1.5	 Refrigeration and Food Security
			1.6	 Elementary Aspects of Low Tempreratue Storage
		2	 Cold Storage
			2.1	 Historic Perspectives
			2.2	 Superchilling and Supercooling
			2.3	 Refrigeration of Processed Foods
			2.4	 Refrigerated Storage of Fruit and Vegetables
			2.5	 Domestic Refrigeration Practices and Food Safety
			2.6	 Refrigeration Practices in Industry
			2.7	 Refrigeration Plant Protection and Quarantine
		3	 Food Freezing and Frozen Foods
			3.1	 Frozen Food Industry and Markets
				3.1.1	 The US Frozen Food Industry
				3.1.2	 Global Frozen Food Markets
			3.2	 Basic Principles of Food Freezing
				3.2.1	 The Preservation Effect of Freezing
				3.2.2	 Food Freezing Curves
				3.2.3	 Rapid Versus Slow Freezing
				3.2.4	 Freeze-Thaw Cycling
				3.2.5	 Purposeful Slow Freezing
				3.2.6	 Dehydrofreezing
			3.3	 Freezing Equipment
				3.3.1	 Air-Blast Freezing
				3.3.2	 Fluidized-Bed Freezing
				3.3.3	 Plate Freezing
				3.3.4	 Liquid Nitrogen Freezers
			3.4	 General Considerations of Food Freezing Preservation
			3.5	 Cold Supply Chain
			3.6	 Pre-processing Foods for Freezing
				3.6.1	 Blanching
				3.6.2	 Other Pre-processes for Freezing
			3.7	 Packaging Frozen Foods
			3.8	 Frozen Food Quality
				3.8.1	 Desiccation
				3.8.2	 Crystallization
				3.8.3	 Loss of Volatiles
				3.8.4	 Colloid Instability
				3.8.5	 Protein Denaturation
				3.8.6	 Oxidation of Food Components
				3.8.7	 Enzymatic Changes
			3.9	 Freezing and Food Safety
		4	 Thawing or Defrosting
			4.1	 Potential Problems with Thawing
			4.2	 USDA Guidelines for Safe Thawing
			4.3	 Refrigerator Defrosting and Cold Water Thawing
			4.4	 Defrosting by Cooking or Microwave Heating
			4.5	 Further Reading
		References
	14: Food Drying
		1	 Introduction
			1.1	 General Principles
				1.1.1	 Definitions of Food Drying
				1.1.2	 Purpose and Advantages of Food Dehydration
			1.2	 Global Markets for Dried Food
				1.2.1	 Market Segmentation
				1.2.2	 Value of the Dried Processed Food Market
			1.3	 Water and the Shelf Life of Foods
				1.3.1	 Moisture and Food Deterioration
				1.3.2	 Food Polymer Model, Mobility and Stability
			1.4	 Drying Rate
				1.4.1	 Factors Influencing the Rate of Drying
				1.4.2	 Food Drying Curve
				1.4.3	 Drying Kinetics and Food Quality
		2	 Pretreatment for Food Drying
			2.1	 Common Operations Prior to Drying
			2.2	 Chemical Pretreatments
			2.3	 Blanching
			2.4	 Edible Coatings
			2.5	 Electrical Pretreatments
			2.6	 Enzymatic Pretreatment
			2.7	 Osmotic Dehydration
			2.8	 Physical Abrasion
		3	 Radiative Drying Methods
			3.1	 Classification of Drying Methods
			3.2	 Sun Drying
			3.3	 Other Radiative Drying Methods
		4	 Convective – Hot Air Driers
			4.1	 Tunnel and Cabinet Hot Air Drying
			4.2	 Fluidized-Bed Drying
			4.3	 Spray Drying
		5	 Other Drying Methods
			5.1	 Conduction – Drum Drying
			5.2	 Freeze Drying/Lyophilisation
			5.3	 Cooking Incidental Food Dehydration
		References
	15: Quality of Dried Foods
		1	 Physical Quality of Dried Foods
			1.1	 General Principles
			1.2	 Physical Structure and Quality
			1.3	 Texture of Dried Foods
		2	 Chemical Changes and Quality of Dried Foods
			2.1	 General Principles
			2.2	 Color and Flavor of Dried Foods
				2.2.1	 Flavor and Aroma of Dried Foods
				2.2.2	 Taste of Dried Foods
			2.3	 Autoxidation and Browning Reactions
				2.3.1	 Oxidation
				2.3.2	 Maillard Reaction
			2.4	 Nutritional Changes
		3	 Rehydration of Dried Foods
			3.1	 Whole Food Rehydration
			3.2	 Food Powder Rehydration
		4	 Microbiology of Dried Foods
			4.1	 General Principles
			4.2	 Microbiological Safety of Dried Foods
			4.3	 Drying Live Cultures
			4.4	 Mycotoxins in Dried Foods
		5	 Shelf Life of Dried Foods
			5.1	 General Principles
			5.2	 Deterioration of Dried Foods
			5.3	 Further Reading
				5.3.1	 Textbooks and Monographs
				5.3.2	 General Reviews
		References
Part IV: Handling and Processing Food
	16: Food Additives
		1	 Introduction
			1.1	 History of Chemical Additives
			1.2	 Significance of Food Additives
			1.3	 Definitions of Food Additives
				1.3.1	 Categories of Food Additives
				1.3.2	 Distinguishing Additives and Food Ingredients
				1.3.3	 Other Exclusion from Additives
			1.4	 Functional Classifications for Food Additives
		2	 Additives Legislation
			2.1	 The 1958 Food Additive Act
			2.2	 The Delaney Clause 1959
			2.3	 Gererally Recognized as Safe Compounds
			2.4	 Approved Lists for Additives
			2.5	 International Regulations for Food Additives
			2.6	 Labelling Requirements for Food Additives
		3	 Sensory Additives
			3.1	 Colorants
			3.2	 Flavorings and Flavor Enhancers
				3.2.1	 Flavors
				3.2.2	 Flavor Enhancers
			3.3	 Sweeteners
				3.3.1	 Fructose
				3.3.2	 Molasses
				3.3.3	 Honey
				3.3.4	 Maple Sugar
				3.3.5	 Lactose
				3.3.6	 Maltose
			3.4	 Nutritive and Non-nutritive Sweeteners
				3.4.1	 Sugar Alcohols, Xylitol, Sorbitol and Mannitol
				3.4.2	 High Intensity Sweeteners, Aspartame, Saccharine and Others
			3.5	 Thickening Agents
				3.5.1	 Starches
				3.5.2	 Gums
				3.5.3	 Polyhydric Alcohols
			3.6	 Gelling Agents
		4	 Nutrient Additives
			4.1	 Vitamins
			4.2	 Proteins and Amino Acids
			4.3	 Minerals
		5	 Processing Aides
			5.1	 Acidulants
			5.2	 Alkaline Compounds
			5.3	 Enzymes
				5.3.1	 Invertase
				5.3.2	 Pectinase
				5.3.3	 Cellulases
				5.3.4	 Proteases
				5.3.5	 Lipases
				5.3.6	 Glucose Oxidase
				5.3.7	 Catalase
			5.4	 Surface-Active Agents and Emulsifiers
			5.5	 Leavening Agents
		6	 Chemical Preservatives
			6.1	 Antioxidants
				6.1.1	 Natural Antioxidants
				6.1.2	 Synthetic Antioxidants
				6.1.3	 Benzoates
				6.1.4	 Sequestrants
			6.2	 Antimicrobial Agents
				6.2.1	 Antibiotics
				6.2.2	 Fatty Acids
				6.2.3	 Sequestrant Antimicrobial Agents
				6.2.4	 Sodium Chloride (Salt)
				6.2.5	 Sulfur Dioxide
				6.2.6	 Sorbic Acid
				6.2.7	 Sodium Nitrite
				6.2.8	 Oxidizing Agents
			6.3	 Ionizing Radiation
		References
	17: Meat
		1	 Introduction
			1.1	 Defining Meat
			1.2	 The US Meat Industry at a Glance
			1.3	 Global Meat Production and Consumption
			1.4	 Meat Preferences World-Wide
			1.5	 Meat Intake and Income
			1.6	 Potential Safety Issues Related to Eating Meat
		2	 General Meat Processing
			2.1	 Slaughter
			2.2	 Cutting and Dressing
			2.3	 Carcase Ageing
			2.4	 Meat Inspection
			2.5	 Cooking Meat
		3	 Meat Products
			3.1	 Beef and Veal
			3.2	 Pork
			3.3	 Lamb and Mutton
			3.4	 Processed Meat Products
		4	 Cured Meat Products
			4.1	 Ham
			4.2	 Smoke Cured Ham
			4.3	 Dry-Cured Ham
			4.4	 Bacon
			4.5	 Corned Beef and Pastrami
		5	 Sausage Products
			5.1	 Fresh Sausages
			5.2	 Frankfurters or Hot Dogs
			5.3	 Bologna
			5.4	 Dried Fermented Sausages
			5.5	 Other Products
		References
	18: Dairy Products
		1	 Introduction
			1.1	 Definitions
			1.2	 Milk Standards
		2	 Dairy Industry Oveview
			2.1	 Classification of the Dairy Industry
			2.2	 United States Milk Production Statistics
			2.3	 Global Economic Significance of Milk
			2.4	 Dairy Products
		3	 Fluid Milk
			3.1	 Milking
			3.2	 Transportation of Fluid Milk
			3.3	 Milk Quality Testing, Quality Assurance
				3.3.1	 Testing Farm Milk
				3.3.2	 Laboratory Milk Tests
		4	 Milk Hygine and Safety
			4.1	 The Grade “A” Milk Ordinance
			4.2	 Microorganisms in Milk
			4.3	 Raw Milk Controversy
			4.4	 Controlling Bacterial Contamination of Milk
		5	 Processing of Fluid Milk
			5.1	 Whole Milk
			5.2	 Skim Milk
			5.3	 Non-fat Dried Milk
		6	 Other Dairy Products
			6.1	 Ice Cream
				6.1.1	 Economic Significance
				6.1.2	 Standards for Ice Cream
				6.1.3	 Ice Cream Manufacturing
				6.1.4	 Low-Fat Ice Cream
				6.1.5	 Quality of Ice Cream
			6.2	 Yogurt
				6.2.1	 Cultured Milk Products
				6.2.2	 Economic Significance of Yogurt
				6.2.3	 Standards for Yogurt
				6.2.4	 Yogurt Manufacturing
					Preparation of Basic Mix
					Heat Treatment
					Starter Culture, Yoghurt Fermentation
				6.2.5	 Yogurt Quality
				6.2.6	 Nutritional Quality of Yogurt
			6.3	 Cheese
				6.3.1	 Nutritional characteristics of cheese
				6.3.2	 Economic Significance of Cheese
				6.3.3	 Standards for Cheese
				6.3.4	 Cheese Manufacturing
				6.3.5	 Cheese Quality
			6.4	 Whey
			6.5	 Butter
			6.6	 Buttermilk
			6.7	 Sour Cream
			6.8	 Dairy Product Substitutes
			6.9	 Further Reading
		Appendix 1: The nutritional characteristics of vanilla ice cream varieties (§)
		References
	19: Poultry and Eggs
		1	 Introduction
			1.1	 The Nature of Poultry
			1.2	 The US Poultry Industry at Glance
			1.3	 World Poultry Trade
			1.4	 Poultry Preferences
				1.4.1	 Consumption patterns for poultry
				1.4.2	 Nutritional considerations for poultry meat
			1.5	 Small-Scale Family Poultry Production
			1.6	 Hygiene considerations for Poultry
		2	 Poultry
			2.1	 Chicken
			2.2	 Turkey
			2.3	 Ducks and Geese
		3	 Poultry Processing
			3.1	 Chicken Slaughter and Handling
			3.2	 Turkey Slaughter and Processing
			3.3	 Poultry Products
			3.4	 Further Reading
		4	 Eggs
			4.1	 Shell Egg Characteristics
				4.1.1	 Whole egg composition
				4.1.2	 Egg hygiene and handling
				4.1.3	 Washing and sanitizing shell egg
				4.1.4	 Egg quality and grading
			4.2	 Processing of Eggs
				4.2.1	 Breaking and separation of shell egg
				4.2.2	 Pasteurization of egg products
				4.2.3	 In-shell egg pasteurization
				4.2.4	 Frozen egg products
				4.2.5	 Spray dried egg products
			4.3	 Egg Consumption
			4.4	 Egg Substitutes
		Appendix1: Current approved pasteurization conditions liquid egg white
		References
	20: Fish and Shellfish
		1	 Introduction
			1.1	 Definitions for Fish
			1.2	 Naming Fish for Retail: The Seafood List
			1.3	 The United States (US) Seafood Industry at Glance
			1.4	 Global Seafood Industry
			1.5	 Hygiene and Safety of Fish Products
				1.5.1	 Fish Handling
				1.5.2	 Safety Codes for Fish and Fishery Products
				1.5.3	 Common Hazards Associated with Eating Fish
		2	 Commercial Species of Fish
			2.1	 Fish Capture
			2.2	 Aquaculture, Fish Farming
			2.3	 The Herring Family (Clupeidae)
				2.3.1	 Sea Herring
				2.3.2	 Shad
				2.3.3	 Menhaden
				2.3.4	 The Anchovy
				2.3.5	 Other Clupeidae
			2.4	 The Cod Family (Gadidae)
				2.4.1	 The Cod
				2.4.2	 Haddock
				2.4.3	 Pollock
				2.4.4	 Hake
				2.4.5	 Small Fish Species
			2.5	 The Mackerel Family (Scombridae)
				2.5.1	 Tuna
				2.5.2	 Mackerel
			2.6	 The Salmon Family (Salmonidae)
				2.6.1	 Pacific Salmon
				2.6.2	 Atlantic Salmon
				2.6.3	 Salmon Processing
			2.7	 The Flatfish Family (Pleuronectidae)
			2.8	 Other Fish
		3	 Shellfish
			3.1	 Bivalve Mollusks (Class Pelyopoda)
				3.1.1	 Oysters
				3.1.2	 The Hard-Shell Clam
				3.1.3	 The Soft-Shell Clam
				3.1.4	 Surf Clams
				3.1.5	 Other Clams
				3.1.6	 Scallops
			3.2	 Crustaceans(Class Decapoda)
				3.2.1	 Lobsters
				3.2.2	 Shrimp
				3.2.3	 Blue Crabs
				3.2.4	 Dungeness Crab
				3.2.5	 King Crab
				3.2.6	 Snow or Tanner Crab
				3.2.7	 Red Crab
				3.2.8	 Jonah Crab
				3.2.9	 Marine Crayfish
				3.2.10	 Freshwater Crayfish
		4	 Surimi
		5	 Further Reading
		References
	21: Cereal Grains
		1	 Introduction
			1.1	 Definitions of Cereals and Cereal Products
			1.2	 Whole Grain and Health
			1.3	 The US Cereal Foods Industry at Glance
			1.4	 Global Cereal Foods Industry
			1.5	 Quality of Cereals and Products
				1.5.1	 Commercial Quality
				1.5.2	 Nutritional Quality
		2	 Major Cereal Grains
			2.1	 Wheat
			2.2	 Corn
			2.3	 Oats
			2.4	 Barley
			2.5	 Rice
		3	 Other Cereal Grains
			3.1	 Sorghum (Milo)
			3.2	 Buckwheat
			3.3	 Millet
			3.4	 Triticale
			3.5	 Further Reading
		References
	22: Bakery Products
		1	 Introduction
			1.1	 The United States (US) Baked Products Industry
			1.2	 The European Union Bakery Industry
			1.3	 Semi-cooked Frozen Dough and Dry Mixes
		2	 Bread, Rolls, and Buns
			2.1	 Standards of Identity
			2.2	 Enriched Bread Rolls and Buns
			2.3	 Milk Bread, Rolls, and Buns
			2.4	 General Ingredients
				2.4.1	 Flour
				2.4.2	 Water
				2.4.3	 Sugar
				2.4.4	 Shortening
				2.4.5	 Yeast
				2.4.6	 Malt
				2.4.7	 Other Ingredients
		3	 Bread Manufacture, Dough Handling
			3.1	 Straight Dough Method
			3.2	 Sponge Dough Method
			3.3	 Batter Whipped Process or Continuous Mix Baking
		4	 Other Popular Cereal Products
			4.1	 The Cakes and Cookies
			4.2	 Doughnuts
			4.3	 Crackers
			4.4	 Pie Crusts
		5	 Bakery Products and Health
			5.1	 Low- and No-Fat Bakery Items
			5.2	 Other Health Issues for Bakery Products
		6	 Further Reading
		References
	23: Fruits and Vegetables
		1	 Introduction
			1.1	 Significance of Fruits and Vegetables
			1.2	 Fruit and Vegetable Production
				1.2.1	 Production of Fruit and Nuts
				1.2.2	 Vegetable and Pulses Production
				1.2.3	 Melon Production
			1.3	 Postharvest Handing
			1.4	 Fruits and Vegetable Processing Industries
			1.5	 United States Export and Import of Fruits and Vegetables
			1.6	 World Production of Fruits and Vegetables
		2	 Fruits
			2.1	 Postharvest Fruit Maturation and Ripening
				2.1.1	 Fruit Harvesting
				2.1.2	 Preservation of Fruit
			2.2	 Grapes and Raisins
				2.2.1	 Table Grapes
				2.2.2	 Raisins
			2.3	 Apples
			2.4	 Bananas
			2.5	 Oranges
			2.6	 Other Fruits
			2.7	 Jelly and Jam
		3	 Vegetables
			3.1	 Tomatoes
			3.2	 Cabbage
			3.3	 Cucumbers
			3.4	 Green and Wax Beans
			3.5	 Broccoli
			3.6	 Lettuce
			3.7	 Olives
			3.8	 Potatoes
		4	 Minimally Processed Fruits and Vegetables
			4.1	 Fresh-Cut Products
			4.2	 Microbial Safety of Fruit and Vegetables
			4.3	 Deterioration and Preservation of Minimally Processed Products
			4.4	 General Conclusions and Further Reading
		References
	24: Sugar and Confectionery Products
		1	 Introduction
			1.1	 The Sugar and Confectionery Industry
			1.2	 Commercial Sugar Supplies
			1.3	 Uses of Sugar
				1.3.1	 Technical uses
				1.3.2	 Consumption trends
		2	 Cane Sugar Manufacturing
			2.1	 Sugar Cane
			2.2	 Processing Cane Sugar
			2.3	 Cane Sugar Refining
		3	 Beet Sugar Manufacturing
			3.1	 Sugar Beet
			3.2	 Processing Beet Sugar
		4	 Other Sugar Sources
			4.1	 Maple Syrup
			4.2	 Corn Syrup or Glucose Syrup
			4.3	 Invert Sugar
		5	 Sugar Confectionery
			5.1	 Global Confectionery Sales
			5.2	 Confectionery Art and Science
			5.3	 Candy Making
		Appendix 1
		References
	25: Foodservices
		1	 Introduction
			1.1	 General Principles
			1.2	 Characteristics of the Foodservice Sector (NAICS 722)
			1.3	 Classification of Foodservice Businesses
			1.4	 Non-Contract Foodservices
			1.5	 Contract Foodservices as Institutional Providers
			1.6	 Economic Significance of the Foodservice Sector
		2	 Choosing Foodservice Systems
			2.1	 Conventional and Centralized Foodservices
			2.2	 Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Foodservices
			2.3	 Food Transit through Foodservice Systems
			2.4	 Processing Continuum for the Foodservice
			2.5	 Foodservice Sustainability and Waste Consideration
		3	 Institutional Foodservices
			3.1	 Definitions
			3.2	 Foodservice Demographic Considerations
			3.3	 Menus Types
			3.4	 Consumer Satisfaction with Foodservices
			3.5	 Management Service Companies
		4	 USDA Food Programs
			4.1	 School Food Programs
			4.2	 Child and Adult Care Food Program
			4.3	 Nutritional Guidelines for Foodservices
			4.4	 Evaluation of School Foodservice Nutrition Programs
		5	 Food Safety & Hygiene for Foodservices
			5.1	 Regulatory Requirements for Food Safety
			5.2	 Foodborne Disease Outbreaks and Foodservices
			5.3	 Foodservice and retail HACCP
		Appendix 1
			A1.Top Foodservice Management Companies
		References
Index