Elemental geosystems

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 15
Copyright Page......Page 16
Contents......Page 19
Book and MasteringGeography™ Walkthrough......Page 5
MasteringGeography™ Mobile-Ready Animations & Videos......Page 29
Preface......Page 30
Digital & Print Resources......Page 35
1 Essentials of Geography......Page 38
GEOSYSTEMSnow Shale Gas: An Energy Resource for the Future?......Page 39
The Science of Geography......Page 40
The Scientific Process......Page 42
Human–Earth Interactions in the 21st Century......Page 44
GEOReport 1.1 Welcome to the Anthropocene......Page 45
Systems Organization in Elemental Geosystems......Page 48
GEOReport 1.2 Earth’s unique hydrosphere......Page 49
Latitude......Page 52
CRITICALthinking 1.2 Latitudinal Geographic Zones and Temperature......Page 53
CRITICALthinking 1.3 Where Are you?......Page 54
GEOReport 1.3 The world’s most accurate clock......Page 56
CRITICALthinking 1.4 Find and Calculate Map Scales......Page 57
Modern Tools and Techniques for Geoscience......Page 60
Global Positioning System......Page 61
GEOReport 1.4 GPS origins......Page 62
Geospatial Data Analysis......Page 65
Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 66
GEOSYSTEMS in action 1: EXPLORING EARTH SYSTEMS......Page 50
GEOReport 1.5 Polar-orbiting satellites predict Hurricane Sandy’s path......Page 64
VISUALanalysis 1 Remote Sensing......Page 69
PART I: The Energy–Atmosphere System......Page 70
2 Solar Energy, Seasons, and the Atmosphere......Page 72
GEOSYSTEMSnow Humans Explore the Atmosphere......Page 73
The Solar System, Sun, and Earth......Page 74
Solar Energy: From Sun to Earth......Page 76
The Seasons......Page 80
GEO
Report 2.2 Earth’s evolving atmosphere......Page 86
Pollutants in the Atmosphere......Page 94
Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 104
focusstudy 2.1 Pollution......Page 100
GEOsystems in action 2: Earth-sun relations......Page 84
CRITICAL
thinking 2.1 A Way to Calculate Sunrise and Sunset......Page 81
GEO
Report 2.1 Measuring Earth’s rotation......Page 82
CRITICAL
thinking 2.3 Where Is Your Tropopause?......Page 91
CRITICAL
thinking 2.4 Finding Your Local Ozone......Page 93
CRITICAL
thinking 2.5 Evaluating Costs andBenefits......Page 102
THE
humanDENOMINATOR: Seasons and the Atmosphere......Page 103
GEOReport 2.3 Outside the airplane......Page 87
GEOReport 2.4 Carbon monoxide—the colorless, odorless pollutant......Page 96
VISUALanalysis 2 The Atmosphere......Page 107
3 Atmospheric Energy and Global Temperatures......Page 108
GEOSYSTEMSnow Melting Sea Ice Opens Arctic Shipping Lanes; However......Page 109
Energy-Balance Essentials......Page 110
CRITICALthinking 3.1 A Kelp Indicator of Surface Energy Dynamics......Page 115
Energy Balance at Earth’s Surface......Page 117
GEOReport 3.2 The hottest temperature on Earth......Page 124
GEOReport 3.3 Iran desert has highest land-surface temperature......Page 125
CRITICALthinking 3.3 Compare and Explain Coastaland Inl and Temperatures......Page 129
Human impacts on Energy Balance and Temperature......Page 136
Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 141
focusstudy 3.1 Sustainable Resources......Page 122
GEOsystems in action 3: EARTH–ATMOSPHERE ENERGY BALANCE......Page 118
CRITICALthinking 3.2 Applying Energy-BalancePrinciples to a Solar Cooker......Page 121
CRITICALthinking 3.4 L ooking at Your Surface EnergyBudget......Page 137
THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Energy Balance and Global Temperatures......Page 140
GEOReport 3.1 Did light refraction sink the Titanic?......Page 113
GEOReport 3.4 Polar regions show greatest rates of warming......Page 135
4 Atmospheric and Oceanic Circulations......Page 144
GEOSYSTEMSnow California’s Santa ana Winds......Page 145
GEOReport 4.1 Blowing in the wind......Page 146
Driving Forces within the Atmosphere......Page 148
Atmospheric Patterns of Motion......Page 154
CRITICALthinking 4.2 What Causes the North Australian Monsoon?......Page 165
Natural Oscillations in Global Circulation......Page 170
Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 175
focusstudy 4.1 Sustainable Resources......Page 168
GEOsystems in action 4: ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION......Page 158
CRITICALthinking 4.1 Measure the Wind......Page 149
THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Global Circulation......Page 174
GEOReport 4.2 Coriolis: Not a force on sinks or toilets......Page 152
GEOReport 4.3 Icelandic ash caught in the jet stream......Page 163
GEOReport 4.4 2010–2011 La Niña breaks records......Page 173
VISUALanalysis 4 Atmospheric Circulation......Page 177
PART II: the Water, Weather, and Climate Systems......Page 178
5 Atmospheric Water and Weather......Page 180
GEOSYSTEMSnow On the Front Lines of Intense Weather......Page 181
Water’s Unique Properties......Page 182
Humidity......Page 186
Atmospheric Stability......Page 189
Clouds and Fog......Page 192
CRITICALthinking 5.3 Identify Two Kinds of Fog......Page 196
Atmospheric Lifting Mechanisms......Page 197
Midlatitude Cyclonic Systems......Page 202
Weather Maps and Forecasting......Page 203
GEOReport 5.3 Kentucky ice storm causes record power losses......Page 206
Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 219
focusstudy 5.1 Natural Hazards......Page 214
GEOsystems in action 5: MIDLATITUDE CYCLONES......Page 204
CRITICALthinking 5.1 Iceberg Analysis......Page 184
CRITICALthinking 5.2 Using Relative Humidity and Dew-Point Maps......Page 188
CRITICALthinking 5.4 Hazard Perception and Planning: What Seems to Be Missing?......Page 217
THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Weather......Page 218
GEOReport 5.1 Katrina had the power......Page 185
GEOReport 5.2 Mountains cause record rains......Page 200
GEOReport 5.4 Research aircraft dissect Hurricane Karl......Page 216
6 Water Resources......Page 222
GEOSYSTEMSnow Environmental Change at Earth’s Largest Lake......Page 223
GEOReport 6.1 The water we use......Page 224
The Hydrologic Cycle......Page 225
Water Budgets and Resource Analysis......Page 228
CRITICALthinking 6.1 Your Local Water Budget......Page 233
GEOReport 6.3 How is water measured?......Page 237
Our Water Supply......Page 246
Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 251
focusstudy 6.1 Climate Change......Page 238
GEOsystems in action 6: GROUNDWA TER......Page 242
GEOReport 6.5 The water cost of food and necessities......Page 247
CRITICALthinking 6.3 That Next Glass of Water......Page 249
THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Water Use......Page 250
GEOReport 6.2 Harvesting fog as a water resource......Page 226
GEOReport 6.4 Satellite GRACE enables groundwater measurements......Page 240
VISUALanalysis 6 Dryland Agriculture......Page 253
7 Earth’s Climatic Regions......Page 254
GEOSYSTEMSnow A Close-up Look at New Zealand’s Climate......Page 255
Classifying Earth’s Climates......Page 256
THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Climate Regions......Page 280
GEOsystems in action 7: EARTH’S CLIMATE SYSTEM......Page 258
CRITICALthinking 7.1 Finding Your Climate......Page 257
CRITICALthinking 7.2 Assessing Impacts as Climate Regions Shift......Page 277
GEOReport 7.1 Tropical climate zones advance to higher latitudes......Page 264
GEOReport 7.2 Boundary considerations and shifting climates......Page 271
GEOReport 7.3 Tundra climates respond to warming......Page 274
8 Climate Change......Page 282
GEOSYSTEMSnow Greenhouse Gases Awaken in the Arctic......Page 283
Population Growth and Fossil-Fuel Burning—The Setting for Climate Change......Page 284
CRITICALthinking 8.1 Crossing the 450-ppm Threshold for Carbon Dioxide......Page 286
Mechanisms of Natural Climate Fluctuation......Page 294
Climate Feedbacks and the Carbon Budget......Page 295
Evidence for Present Climate Change......Page 300
Causes of Present Climate Change......Page 305
GEOReport 8.3 Causes of extreme weather events in a changing climate......Page 309
The Path ahead......Page 312
Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 316
focusstudy 8.1 Climate Change......Page 298
GEOsystems in action 8: THE GLOBAL CARBON BUDGET......Page 296
CRITICALthinking 8.3 Consider Your Carbon Footprint......Page 313
THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Taking Action on Climate Change......Page 315
GEOReport 8.1 Rainfall over Australia temporarily halts global sea-level rise......Page 304
GEOReport 8.2 China leads the world in overall CO2 emissions......Page 306
VISUALanalysis 8 Wildfire, Clouds, climatic regions, and climate change......Page 317
PART III: The Earth–Atmosphere Interface......Page 318
9 The Dynamic Planet......Page 320
GEOSYSTEMSnow Earth’s Migrating Magnetic Poles......Page 321
The Pace of Change......Page 322
CRITICALthinking 9.1 thoughts about an “Anthropocene Epoch”......Page 324
Earth Materials and the Rock Cycle......Page 328
Plate Tectonics......Page 332
GEOReport 9.4 The largest volcano on Earth......Page 341
Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 346
focusstudy 9.1 Sustainable Resources......Page 344
GEOsystems in action 9: THE GEOLOGIC CYCLE......Page 342
GEOReport 9.3 Spreading along the East Pacific Rise......Page 337
THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Earth Materials and Plate......Page 345
GEOReport 9.1 Radioactive elements drive Earth’s internal heat......Page 325
GEOReport 9.2 Deep-drilling the continental crust......Page 326
10 Tectonics, Earthquakes, and Volcanism......Page 348
GEOSYSTEMSnow The San Jacinto Fault Connection......Page 349
Earth’s Surface Relief......Page 350
CRITICALthinking 10.1 Comparing Topographic Regions at Different Scales......Page 353
Crustal Deformation......Page 355
Orogenesis (Mountain Building)......Page 362
Earthquakes......Page 366
Volcanism......Page 373
Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 382
focusstudy 10.1 Natural Hazards......Page 370
GEOsystems in action 10: MOUNTAIN BUILDING......Page 364
CRITICALthinking 10.2 Ocean-Floor Tectonics Tour......Page 380
THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Tectonics......Page 381
GEOReport 10.1 Mount Everest measured by GPS......Page 352
GEOReport 10.2 Ongoing earthquake activity in Sumatra, Indonesia......Page 368
GEOReport 10.3 Large earthquakes affect Earth’s axial tilt......Page 372
GEOReport 10.4 Mount Ontake’s deadly 2014 eruption in Japan......Page 376
11 Weathering, Karst Landscapes, and Mass Movement......Page 384
GEOSYSTEMSnow The Oso, Washington, Landslide......Page 385
Landmass Denudation......Page 386
CRITICALthinking 11.1 Find a Slope; Apply the Concepts......Page 390
GEOReport 11.1 Weathering on bridges in Central Park, NYC......Page 395
Mass-Movement Processes......Page 398
Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 408
CRITICALthinking 11.2 Compare Two Mass-Movement Events......Page 404
GEOsystems in action 11: HILLSLOPES AS OPEN SYSTEMS......Page 388
THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Weathering, Karst, and Hillslopes......Page 407
GEOReport 11.2 Sinkholes caused by human activities......Page 397
GEOReport 11.3 Rockfalls in Yosemite......Page 402
VISUALanalysis 11 Processes at Work on a Sandstone Cathedral......Page 406
12 River Systems......Page 410
GEOSYSTEMSnow Proposed Dams On the Nu River China......Page 411
Drainage Basins and Drainage Patterns......Page 412
Basic Fluvial Concepts......Page 417
Fluvial Processes and Landforms......Page 419
GEOReport 12.2 America’s levees......Page 435
Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 439
focusstudy 12.1 Environmental Restoration......Page 426
GEOsystems in action 12: MEANDERING STREAMS......Page 424
CRITICALthinking 12.1 Locate Your Drainage Basin......Page 414
CRITICALthinking 12.2 Identifying Drainage Patterns......Page 416
THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Rivers, Floodplains, and Deltas......Page 438
GEOReport 12.1 The disappearing Nile River delta......Page 433
GEOReport 12.3 Another measure of statistical flood probability......Page 437
VISUALanalysis 12 Levee Breaks in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina......Page 441
13 Oceans, Coastal Systems, and Wind Processes......Page 442
GEOSYSTEMSnow Sand Dunes Protect Coastlines During Hurricane Sandy......Page 443
Global Oceans and Seas......Page 444
Coastal System Components......Page 447
CRITICALthinking 13.1 Thinking Through a Rising Sea Level......Page 449
Coastal System Outputs......Page 455
Wind Processes......Page 466
Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 473
focusstudy 13.1 Natural Hazards......Page 456
GEOsystems in action 13: WIND-BLOWN DUNE FORMS......Page 471
CRITICALthinking 13.2 Examining Hard versus Soft Shoreline Protection......Page 461
CRITICALthinking 13.3 The Nearest Eolian Features......Page 470
THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Oceans, Coasts, and Dunes......Page 472
GEOReport 13.1 The Mediterranean Sea is getting saltier......Page 446
GEOReport 13.2 Surprise waves flood a cruise ship......Page 453
GEOReport 13.3 Ocean acidification impacts corals......Page 465
GEOReport 13.4 Human activities disturb eolian landforms......Page 468
VISUALanalysis 13 Coastal Processes and Barrier Islands......Page 475
14 Glacial and Periglacial Landscapes......Page 476
GEOSYSTEMSnow Tidewater Glaciers and Ice Shelves Give Way to Warming......Page 477
Snow into ice—The Basis of Glaciers......Page 478
Types of Glaciers......Page 479
Glacial Processes......Page 481
Glacial Landforms......Page 486
Periglacial Landscapes......Page 492
The Pleistocene Epoch......Page 498
CRITICALthinking 14.2 A Sample of Life at the Polar Station......Page 501
Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 505
focusstudy 14.1 Climate Change......Page 494
GEOsystems in action 14: GLACIERS AS DYNAMIC SYSTEMS......Page 482
CRITICALthinking 14.1 Looking for Glacial Features......Page 488
THEhumanDENOMINATOR: The Cryosphere......Page 504
GEOReport 14.1 Greenland Ice Sheet melting......Page 485
GEOReport 14.2 Feedback loops from fossil-fuel exploration to permafrost thawing......Page 496
GEOReport 14.3 Glacial ice might protect underlying mountains......Page 502
VISUALanalysis 14 Glacial Processes and Landforms......Page 507
PART IV: Soils, Ecosystems, and Biomes......Page 508
15 The Geography of Soils......Page 510
GEOSYSTEMSnow Desertification: Declining Soils in Earth’s Drylands......Page 511
Soil Development and Soil Profiles......Page 512
Human Impacts on Soils......Page 520
CRITICALthinking 15.1 Soil Losses—What to Do?......Page 523
Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 538
focusstudy 15.1 Pollution......Page 528
GEOsystems in action 15: BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY IN SOILS......Page 519
GEOReport 15.4 Biological soil crusts......Page 535
THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Soils and Land Use......Page 537
GEOReport 15.1 Soil compaction—causes and effects......Page 517
GEOReport 15.2 Slipping through our fingers......Page 521
GEOReport 15.3 Overgrazing on Argentina’s grasslands......Page 522
GEOReport 15.5 Huge tropical peat bog discovered in Africa......Page 536
16 Ecosystem Essentials......Page 540
GEOSYSTEMSnow Species’ Distributions Shift with Climate Change......Page 541
Energy Flows and Nutrient Cycles......Page 542
Communities and Species Distributions......Page 553
Biodiversity, Evolution, and Ecosystem Stability......Page 559
Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 566
focusstudy 16.1 Natural Hazards......Page 558
GEOsystems in action 16: COASTAL DEAD ZONES......Page 549
GEOReport 16.1 Sea turtles navigate using Earth’s magnetic field......Page 554
CRITICALthinking 16.2 Observe Ecosystem Disturbanceand Recovery......Page 564
THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Ecosystems and Biodiversity......Page 565
GEOReport 16.2 Another take on lake–bog succession......Page 560
GEOReport 16.3 Will species adapt to climate change?......Page 563
17 Terrestrial Biomes......Page 568
GEOSYSTEMSnow Invasive Species Arrive at Tristan da Cunha......Page 569
GEOReport 17.1 A new look at Wallace’s zoogeographic regions......Page 570
Conservation Biogeography......Page 572
Earth’s Terrestrial Biomes......Page 575
Key Learning Concepts Review......Page 592
focusstudy 17.1 Environmental Restoration......Page 576
GEOsystems in action 17: TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS AND AMAZON DEFORESTATION......Page 582
CRITICALthinking 17.1 Reality Check......Page 578
CRITICALthinking 17.2 Tropical Forests: A Global or Local Resource?......Page 580
CRITICALthinking 17.3 A Shifting-Climate Hypothetical......Page 589
THEhumanDENOMINATOR: Anthropogenic Biomes......Page 591
GEOReport 17.2 Black-footed ferrets return from the edge of extinction......Page 587
GEOReport 17.3 Plant communities survive under glacial ice......Page 588
GEOReport 17.4 Aquatic biomes and marine ecosystem management......Page 590
VISUALanalysis 17 Seasonal Changes......Page 593
Appendix A: Maps in This Text and Topgraphic Maps......Page 594
Appendix B: The Köppen Climate Classification System......Page 599
Appendix C: Common Conversions......Page 602
A......Page 604
B......Page 605
C......Page 606
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E......Page 609
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Z......Page 624
Human Denominator & Geosystems in Action Credits......Page 625
A......Page 626
B......Page 628
C......Page 629
D......Page 631
E......Page 633
F......Page 634
G......Page 635
H......Page 637
K......Page 638
L......Page 639
M......Page 640
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O......Page 642
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