Electrospun Nanofibers: Principles, Technology and Novel Applications

Foreword
Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Symbols and Abbreviations
Part I Fundamentals of Electrospinning
1 Introduction and Fundamentals of Electrospinning
	1.1 Historical Background of the Electrospinning Process
	1.2 Micro and Nanofibers Produced by Electrospinning
	1.3 Basic Apparatus of Electrospinning and Recent Advances in Manufacturing Techniques
		1.3.1 Melt Electrospinning
		1.3.2 Needleless Electrospinning
		1.3.3 Bubble Electrospinning
		1.3.4 Coaxial Electrospinning
		1.3.5 3D Electrospinning Technologies
	1.4 Composite Nanofibers—Materials and Properties
	1.5 Functionalized Nanofibers
		1.5.1 Physical and Chemical Functionalization Methods
		1.5.2 Functional Nanofibers with Desired Properties
	1.6 Application Areas
		1.6.1 Tissue Engineering
		1.6.2 Drug Delivery
		1.6.3 Textile Industry
		1.6.4 Food Packaging Industry
		1.6.5 Separation and Filtration Applications
		1.6.6 Sensor Applications
		1.6.7 Battery Materials
		1.6.8 Protection Against Chemical and Biological Agents
		1.6.9 Optical Cloaking
		1.6.10 Water Contamination Mitigation
	1.7 Future Trends and Conclusions
	References
2 Fabrication Methodologies of Multi-layered and Multi-functional Electrospun Structures by Co-axial and Multi-axial Electrospinning Techniques
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Electrospinning Techniques for the Fabrication of Multi-material and Hollow Fibers
		2.2.1 Multi-axial Electrospinning Methods
		2.2.2 Side-by-Side Electrospinning Technique
	2.3 Development of Nano/Micro and Multi-material Electrospun Hollow Fiber Structures
		2.3.1 Fabrication of Core/Shell Fibers
		2.3.2 Hollow Fibers Produced by Multi-axial Techniques
		2.3.3 Side-by-Side Oriented Nanofiber Production (Janus Fibers)
	2.4 Miscellaneous Electrospun Structures by Co- and Multi-axial Electrospinning Techniques
	2.5 Potential Applications and Future Outlook
	2.6 Conclusions
	References
3 Solvent-Free Electrospinning—Application in Wound Dressing
	3.1 Introduction of Solvent-Free Electrospinning
		3.1.1 Melt Electrospinning
		3.1.2 Supercritical CO2-Aided Electrospinning
		3.1.3 Anion-Induced-Curing Electrospinning
		3.1.4 UV-Curing Electrospinning
		3.1.5 Thermocuring Electrospinning
		3.1.6 Two-Component Electrospinning
	3.2 Advantages and Challenges of Solvent-Free Electrospinning
		3.2.1 High Efficient Utilization of Precursor
		3.2.2 Ecofriendly Electrospinning Process
		3.2.3 Challenges in Solvent-Free Electrospinning
	3.3 Biomedical Applications of Solvent-Free Electrospinning
		3.3.1 Tissue Engineering
		3.3.2 Drug Sustained-Release Material
		3.3.3 Fast Hemostasis
	3.4 Conclusion and Perspective
	References
4 Melt Electrospinning Writing
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Melt Electrospinning Writing (MEW)
		4.2.1 Polymers Used for MEW
		4.2.2 Parameters and Diameter of the Melt Electrowritten Fibers
		4.2.3 Challenges and Limitations
	4.3 Application of Melt Electrowritten Fibers
		4.3.1 Tissue Regeneration
		4.3.2 Improvement of Mechanical Properties of Materials
		4.3.3 Combinatory Effect of Tissue Regeneration and Improvement of Mechanical Properties of Scaffolds
		4.3.4 Mathematical and Computational Modeling for Developing Melt Electrowritten Fibers
	4.4 Composites of Melt Electrowritten Fibers and Other Materials
	4.5 Conclusion
	References
5 Co-electrohydrodynamic Forming of Biomimetic Polymer Materials for Diffusion Magnetic Resonance Imaging
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Co-electrohydrodynamic Forming of Hollow Polymeric Materials
		5.2.1 Co-electrospinning of Hollow Polymeric Fibres
		5.2.2 Coaxial Electrospraying of Hollow Polymer Particles
	5.3 Tissue Microstructure Mimicking Phantoms for Diffusion MRI
		5.3.1 Brain, Heart and Tumour Microstructure
		5.3.2 Co-EHD Microstructural Phantoms for Diffusion MRI
	5.4 Summary
	References
6 Polysuccinimide and Polyaspartamide for Functional Fibers: Synthesis, Characterization, and Properties
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Synthesis of PSI Gel Fibers by Post-spinning Chemical Crosslinking
	6.3 Synthesis of PSI Gel Fibers by Post-spinning Plasma Crosslinking
	6.4 Synthesis of PSI Gel Fibers by Coaxial Reactive Electrospinning
	6.5 Synthesis of Redox-Sensitive PSI and PASP Gel Fibers by Reactive Electrospinning
	6.6 Summary
	References
Part II Applications of Electrospun Nanofibers
7 Electrospun Fibers in Drug Delivery
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Fiber Architecture
	7.3 Pharmaceutical Polymers
	7.4 Small Molecule Drugs
		7.4.1 Fast Dissolving Drug Delivery Systems
		7.4.2 Extended Release
		7.4.3 Zero-Order Release
		7.4.4 Targeted Release
		7.4.5 Multi-stage Release
	7.5 Electrospinning of Biologicals
		7.5.1 Proteins
		7.5.2 Cells and Extracellular Vesicles
	7.6 Translation
	7.7 Conclusions
	References
8 Suitability of Electrospun Nanofibers for Specialized Biomedical Applications
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Wound Dressing
	8.3 Drug Delivery
	8.4 Vascular Grafts
	8.5 Tissue Engineering
	8.6 Enzyme Immobilization
	8.7 Conclusıons
	References
9 Biopolymeric Electrospun Nanofibers for Wound Dressings in Diabetic Patients
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Diabetes Mellitus and Impaired Wound Healing
	9.3 Electrospun Nanofibers
		9.3.1 Natural Biopolymers
		9.3.2 Synthetic Polymers
	9.4 Conclusion
	References
10 Biomedical Applications of Fibers Produced by Electrospinning, Microfluidic Spinning and Combinations of Both
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Electrospinning
		10.2.1 Principles of Electrospinning
		10.2.2 Control of the Electrospinning Process/Parameters
		10.2.3 Fibrous Meshes Morphologies and Structures
	10.3 Microfluidics
		10.3.1 Principles of Microfluidics and Microfluidic Spinning
		10.3.2 Fibrous Structures
	10.4 Applications of Electrospinning and Microfluidic Spinning in the Biomedical Field
		10.4.1 Tissue Engineering
		10.4.2 Wound Dressing
		10.4.3 Drug Delivery Systems
	10.5 Hybrid Systems
		10.5.1 Integration of Electrospun Nanofibrous Meshes into Microfluidic Systems
	10.6 Conclusions
	References
11 Multifunctional Wound Dressings Based on Electrospun Nanofibers
	11.1 Introduction to Electrospun Nanofibers for Wound Dressing
		11.1.1 Skin Wound and Wound Healing: Basic Aspects
		11.1.2 Types of Wound Dressing: Conventional and Novel Multifunctional Ones
		11.1.3 Electrospinning as a Suitable Alternative for Wound Dressing
	11.2 Characterization of ESNF for Wound Dressings
		11.2.1 Morphology, Porosity and Surface Area
		11.2.2 Fluid Handling Capacity and Oxygen Permeation
		11.2.3 Mechanical Properties
		11.2.4 Chemical Composition
		11.2.5 Biological Characterizations
	11.3 Applications of ESNF Wound Dressings
		11.3.1 Synthetic Polymers Applied to ESNF Wound Dressing Design
		11.3.2 Natural Polymers Applied to ESNF Wound Dressing Design
	11.4 Conclusions
	References
12 Incorporating Poorly Soluble Drugs into Electrospun Nanofibers for Improved Solubility and Dissolution Profile
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Methods of Drug Incorporation into Electrospun Nanofibers
		12.2.1 Blending
		12.2.2 Surface Modification/Immobilization
		12.2.3 Co-axial Electrospinning
		12.2.4 Emulsion Electrospinning
		12.2.5 Layer by Layer Electrospinning
	12.3 Mechanism of Solubility Enhancement Using Electrospun Nanofibers
		12.3.1 Nanonization
		12.3.2 Porosity
		12.3.3 Crystalline to Amorphous Conversion
		12.3.4 Overcome Hydrophobicity
	12.4 Nanofiber Complexes for Solubility Enhancement
	12.5 Bioavailability Enhancement
	12.6 Conclusion
	References
13 Electrospun Nanofibers based Electrodes and Electrolytes for Supercapacitors
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Electric Double-Layer Capacitors (EDLC)
		13.2.1 Pseudocapacitors
		13.2.2 Hybrid Supercapacitors
	13.3 Electrospun NFs Based Electrodes
		13.3.1 Carbon Nanofibers (CNFs)
		13.3.2 Carbon-Composite NFs
		13.3.3 Metal-Oxide NFs
		13.3.4 Spinel Oxides NFs
		13.3.5 Perovskites NFs
		13.3.6 Metal-Oxide Metal-Oxide Composites NFs
	13.4 Electrospun Polymer Membrane Electrolytes (ESPMEs)
		13.4.1 PVDF Based ESPMEs
		13.4.2 PVDF-HFP Based ESPMEs
		13.4.3 PAN-Based ESPMEs
		13.4.4 PVA Based ESPMEs
		13.4.5 Other Polymers Based ESPMEs
	13.5 Conclusion and Future Outlook
	References
14 Energy Harvesting Solutions Based on Piezoelectric Textiles Structures from Macro Nano Approach
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Materials Used for Piezo Applications
	14.3 Microscale Fibers Used in Piezo Applications
	14.4 Nanofibers
		14.4.1 PVDF
		14.4.2 Copolymers
		14.4.3 PLA
		14.4.4 PAN
		14.4.5 Nanocomposite
	14.5 Applications
		14.5.1 Nanogenerators
		14.5.2 Sensors
		14.5.3 Energy Storage
	14.6 Conclusion
	References
15 Morphological and Mechanical Properties of Electrospun Polyurethane Nanofibers—Air-Filtering Application
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Materials and Methods
		15.2.1 Electrospinning
		15.2.2 Polymers
		15.2.3 Solvents
		15.2.4 Polymeric Concentration
		15.2.5 Conductive Materials
		15.2.6 Preparation of Polymeric Solutions
	15.3 Characterization
		15.3.1 Solution Characterization
		15.3.2 Morphology Characterization
		15.3.3 Physical Characterization
		15.3.4 Mechanical Properties
	15.4 Results and Discussion
		15.4.1 Viscosity and Conductivity of Solutions
		15.4.2 Morphology of Nanofibers
		15.4.3 Mechanical Properties
	15.5 Conclusion
	References
16 Electrospun Polymeric Nanofibers: An Innovative Application for Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Quality Attributes of Fruits and Vegetables
	16.3 Methods to Prolong the Shelf Life of Fruits and Vegetables
	16.4 Nanotechnology Applied to Food
	16.5 Development of Nanofibers
		16.5.1 Antimicrobial Nanofibers Applied to Food
		16.5.2 Potential of Nanofibers in the Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables
	16.6 Future Perspectives
	16.7 Conclusions
	References
17 Encapsulation of Bioactive Compounds in Electrospun Nanofibers for Food Packaging
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Polymeric Nanofibers as Material for Encapsulation by the Electrospinning Process
	17.3 Bioactive Compounds for Encapsulation by Electrospinning
		17.3.1 Phycocyanin
		17.3.2 Phenolic Compounds and Essential Oils
		17.3.3 Anthocyanins
	17.4 Nanotechnology and Food Safety
	17.5 Electrospun Nanofibers Containing Bioactive Compounds for Application in Food Packaging
		17.5.1 Active Packaging
		17.5.2 Functional Bioactive Packaging
		17.5.3 Intelligent Packaging
		17.5.4 Edible Packaging
	17.6 Conclusion and Future Trends
	References
18 Application of Electrospun Polyaniline (PANI) Based Composites Nanofibers for Sensing and Detection
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Electrospun Nanofibers Fabrication
	18.3 Electrospun Metal Oxide Nanofibers-Based Sensor
	18.4 Electrospun Polyaniline (PANI) Based Composites Nanofibers Sensor
		18.4.1 Electrospun PANI/Polymer Composites Nanofibers
		18.4.2 Electrospun PANI/Metal Oxide Composites Nanofibers
	18.5 Conclusions
	References
19 Protective Facemask Made of Electrospun Fibers
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Facemasks
	19.3 The Global Market of Facemask
	19.4 Types of Facemasks
		19.4.1 Non-medical Masks
		19.4.2 Medical Face Masks
	19.5 Properties of Facemasks
		19.5.1 Filtration Efficiency
		19.5.2 Face Fitting
		19.5.3 Breathable
		19.5.4 Fluid Resistance
		19.5.5 Reusable
		19.5.6 Audible
		19.5.7 Durable
	19.6 Characterization Techniques for Facemasks
		19.6.1 Bacteria Filtration Efficiency In Vitro (BFE)
		19.6.2 Differential Pressure Test
		19.6.3 Particle Filtration Efficiency
		19.6.4 Breathing Resistance
		19.6.5 Splash Resistance
		19.6.6 Flammability
		19.6.7 Biocompatibility and Toxicological Risk Assessments
		19.6.8 Additional Test for Respirators (N95)
	19.7 The Effect of COVID-19 on Demand for Facemasks
	19.8 Electrospun Nanofibers
		19.8.1 Properties and Application of Nanofibers
		19.8.2 Use of Nanofibers in Filtration Applications
		19.8.3 Use of Nanofibers for Facemasks
	19.9 Nanofibers as Sole Facemasks
		19.9.1 Nanofibers Coatings on Facemasks
		19.9.2 Nanofibers from the Synthetic Origin for Facemasks
		19.9.3 Nanofibers from the Natural Origin for Facemasks
		19.9.4 Composite Nanofibers for Facemasks
	19.10 Properties of Nanofibers that Influence the Facemasks
		19.10.1 Influence of Fiber Diameter on Filtration Efficiency
		19.10.2 Influence of Fiber Morphology on Filtration Efficiency
		19.10.3 Influence of Porosity on Filtration Efficiency
		19.10.4 Influence of Structure on Filtration Efficiency
	19.11 Bioactive/Antiviral Nanofibers for Facemasks
	19.12 Conclusions and Future Perspective
	References
Part III Advanced Manufacturing
20 Electrospinning and Three-Dimensional (3D) Printing for Biofabrication
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Electrofabrication
		20.2.1 Electrofabrication Methods: Principles, Techniques and Conditions
		20.2.2 Developments and Generations of Electrofabrication Methods
		20.2.3 Advantages and Limitations
	20.3 3D Bioprinting
		20.3.1 Microextrusion 3D Bioprinting
		20.3.2 Inkjet 3D Bioprinting
		20.3.3 Laser-Assisted 3D Bioprinting
		20.3.4 Stereolithography 3D Bioprinting
		20.3.5 Electrospinning-Based 3D Printing
	20.4 Combining Electrospinning and 3D Bioprinting
		20.4.1 Need, Approaches and Conditions
		20.4.2 Application in Tissue Engineering
		20.4.3 Advantages and Limitations
	20.5 Challenges and Future Directions
	20.6 Conclusions
	References
21 Application of Hand-Held Electrospinning Devices in Medicine
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Characteristics and Advantages of Portable Electrospinning Devices
	21.3 Portable Electrospinning Devices and Its In-situ Application
		21.3.1 Hand-Held Electrospinning Devices and Its Applications
		21.3.2 Battery-Driven Portable Electrospinning Devices and Its Applications
		21.3.3 Generator-Driven Portable Electrospinning Device and Its Application
	21.4 Functional Materials of Nanofibers
	21.5 Conclusions and Prospects
	References
22 Hierarchical Integration of 3D Printing and Electrospinning of Nanofibers for Rapid Prototyping
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Overview of Processes
		22.2.1 3D Printing—Overview of the Basic Process
		22.2.2 Electrospinning—Overview of the Basic Process
	22.3 Configurations of Hierarchal Integration
	22.4 Spectrum of Potential Applications
		22.4.1 Tissue Engineering
		22.4.2 Wound Dressing, Physical Augmentation and Personal Protective Equipment
		22.4.3 Piezoelectric Materials—Tactile Sensing, Energy Harvesting and Biomedical Application
		22.4.4 Piezoelectric Devices for Structural Health Monitoring
	22.5 Conclusions and Future Applications
	References
23 Integration of Electrospinning and 3D Printing Technology
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 The Principle/Setup of Electrospinning and 3D Printing
		23.2.1 The Principle/Setup of Electrospinning
		23.2.2 The Principle/Setup of 3D Printing
	23.3 The Integration of Electrospinning and 3D Printing
		23.3.1 Near-Field Electrospinning
		23.3.2 Melt Electrospinning
		23.3.3 Other 3D Printed Electrospinning Technology
	23.4 Materials for Electrospinning and 3D Printing
	23.5 Engineering of the Materials
		23.5.1 Control of In-Fiber Porosity and Geometry
		23.5.2 Incorporation of Nanoparticles
		23.5.3 Control of Morphology, Alignment, and Stacking
	23.6 Scale-Up Production for Industrial Applications
		23.6.1 Basic Research on Scale-Up Production of 3D Printed Electrospinning
		23.6.2 Current Situation of Scale-Up Manufacturing Equipment for 3D Printing Electrospinning
	23.7 Concluding Remarks
	References
24 Electrospun Nanofibers for Industrial and Energy Applications
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 Electrospinning
	24.3 Electrostatic Interaction Principle
	24.4 Effect of Parameters on Electrospinning
		24.4.1 Applied Voltage and Flow Rate
		24.4.2 Needle to Collector Distance
		24.4.3 Type and Materials of Collector
		24.4.4 Solvents
		24.4.5 Solution Viscosity and Conductivity
	24.5 Functional Nanofibers
	24.6 Polymer-Based Electrospun Nanofiber
	24.7 Cyclodextrins (CDs)
	24.8 Inclusion Complexes (ICs)
	24.9 Cyclodextrin Inclusion Complexes Encapsulating Electrospun Nanofiber (CDs-ICs-P-NF)
	24.10 Polymer Free Electrospun Nanofiber (CDs-ICs-NF)
	24.11 Food Packaging Applications
	24.12 Pharmaceutical Applications
	24.13 Energy Applications
	24.14 Conclusions
	References
25 Electrospun Nanofibers for Energy Harvesting
	25.1 Introduction
	25.2 Piezoelectric Nanogenerators (PNGs)
	25.3 Piezo-Pyroelectric Hybrid Nanogenerators
	25.4 Triboelectric Nanogenerators (TENGs)
	25.5 Piezoelectric and Triboelectric Nanogenerators (PTNGs)
	25.6 Conclusion
	References
26 Development of Micro/Nano Channels Using Electrospinning for Neural Differentiation of Cells
	26.1 Introduction: Neural Differentiation of Cells
	26.2 Biomedical Applications of Electrospinning (an Overview)
		26.2.1 Drug Delivery Systems
		26.2.2 Wound Healing
		26.2.3 Tissue Engineering Scaffolds
	26.3 Electrospinning in Neural Differentiation of Cells
		26.3.1 Polymeric Nanofibrous Scaffolds
	26.4 Biomedical Applications of Microfluidics (an Overview)
	26.5 Microfluidics in Neural Differentiation of Cells
	26.6 Electrospinning and Microfluidic Hybrid Systems in Neural Differentiation of Cells
		26.6.1 Electrospun Nanofibers in Attachment with a Microfluidic Chip
		26.6.2 Microfluidic Spinning of Nanofibrous Scaffolds
		26.6.3 Electrospun Fiber Molding for Fabrication of Microfluidic Channels
	26.7 Conclusions
	References
Author Index
Subject Index