Electromagnetic and Electromechanical Machines

Preface
	Acknowledgments
Chapter 1: Basic Concepts of Power Circuits
	1-1 Phasor Diagrams
	1-2 AC Circuit Relationships
		1-2.1 Single-Subscript Notation
		1-2.2 Double-Subscript Notation
	1-3 Three-Phase Circuits
		1-3.1 Delta-Connected Impedances
		1-3.2 Balanced Delta-Connected Load
		1-3.3 Wye-Connected Impedances
		1-3.4 Three-Wire, Wye-Arrangement (Neutral Connection Open)
		1-3.5 Balanced Wye-Connected Load
		1-3.6 Four-Wire Arrangement (Load Neutral Connected to Source Neutral)
		1-3.7 Phase Sequence
	1-4 Complex Power
		1-4.1 Power Triangle
		1-4.2 Power Flow
		1-4.3 Power in Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
	1-5 Per-Unit Quantities
	Study Questions
	Problems
	Bibliography
Chapter 2: Energy Conversion
	2-1 Force in a Capacitor
	2-2 The Toroid
	2-3 Series and Parallel Magnetic Circuits
	2-4 Magnetic Materials
	2-5 Iron and Air
		2-5.1 Magnetic Leakage and Fringing
		2-5.2 Graphical Analysis
		2-5.3 Core Losses
			Hysteresis Loop
			Hysteresis Loss
			Reentrant Loop
			Rotational Hysteresis Loss
			Maximum Flux Density under Sinusoidal Excitation
			Eddy-Current Loss
			High-Frequency Magnetic Materials
	2-6 Flux Linkage and Equivalent Flux
		2-6.1 Energy Stored in Magnetic Circuits
		2-6.2 Self-Inductance
		2-6.3 Mutual Inductance
			Coefficient of Coupling
	2-7 Magnetic Force
		2-7.1 Force and Torque in Singly Excited Magnetic Circuits
		2-7.2 Force and Torque in Multiply Excited Magnetic Circuits
		2-7.3 Force and Energy in Nonlinear Magnetic Circuits
			Energy Relations in Nonlinear Magnetic Circuits
	2-8 Permanent Magnets
		2-8.1 Operating Characteristics of Permanent Magnets
		2-8.2 Energy Product
		2-8.3 Square-Loop Ferrites
	Study Questions
	Problems
	Bibliography
Chapter 3: The Transformer
	3-1 The Two-Winding Transformer
	3-2 The Ideal Two-Winding Transformer
		3-2.1 Voltage Ratio and Transformer Polarity
		3-2.2 Current Ratio
		3-2.3 Impedance Ratio
	3-3 Exciting Current, Core-Loss Current and Magnetizing Current
		3-3.1 Core-Loss Current
		3-3.2 Magnetizing Current
		3-3.3 Waveform of Exciting Current
		3-3.4 Core-Loss Current
		3-3.5 Magnetizing Current, Including Harmonics
	3-4 Leakage Impedance
		3-4.1 The Equivalent Circuit
		3-4.2 The Approximate Equivalent Circuit
	3-5 Coupled-Circuit Equations
		3-5.1 Leakage Inductance
		3-5.2 Magnetizing Inductance
		3-5.3 Coefficient of Coupling
	3-6 Open-Circuit and Short-Circuit Tests, Exciting Admittance, and Equivalent Impedance
	3-7 Transformer Losses and Efficiency
	3-8 Voltage Regulation
	3-9 Autotransformers
	3-10 Instrument Transformers
	3-11 Three-Phase Transformer Connections
		3-11.1 Delta-Delta Connection
		3-11.2 Wye-Wye Connection
		3-11.3 Wye-Delta Connection
		3-11.4 Open-Delta or V-V Connection
		3-11.5 Three-Phase Transformers
		3-11.6 Three-to-Six-Phase Transformation
	3-12 Per-Unit Quantities of Transformers
	3-13 Multicircuit Transformers
		3-13.1 Open-Circuit and Short-Circuit Tests
	3-14 Third Harmonics in Three-Phase Transformer Operation
	3-15 Current Inrush
	3-16 Reactors
		3-16.1 Volume of Air Gap
		3-16.2 Rating of Reactors and Transformers
	Study Questions
	Problems
	Bibliography
Chapter 4: Synchronous Machines
	4-1 Introduction
	4-2 Waveform
	4-3 AC Armature Windings
	4-4 Induced Armature Voltage
		4-4.1 Voltage Induced in a Generator Armature Coil
		4-4.2 Voltage Induced in a Distributed Winding
		4-4.3 Pitch Factor and Breadth Factor for Harmonics
	4-5 Armature MMF
		4-5.1 Fundamental Component of mmf Space Wave
		4-5.2 Angular Displacement between mmf Waves
	4-6 Unsaturated Inductances of a Cylindrical-Rotor Machine
		4-6.1 Inductance of the Field
		4-6.2 Magnetizing Inductance (Inductance of Armature Reaction)
		4-6.3 Self- and Mutual-Inductance Components of Magnetizing Inductance in Three-Phase Windings
	4-7 Phasor Diagram of Cylindrical-Rotor Synchronous Generator
		4-7.1 Leakage Flux
		4-7.2 Synchronous Reactance
		4-7.3 Equivalent Circuit
		4-7.4 Current-Source Representation
	4-8 Idealized Three-Phase Generator—General Relationship in Terms of Inductances
	4-9 Generator Delivering Balanced Load
	4-10 Torque
	4-11 Open-Circuit and Short-Circuit Tests
		4-11.1 Open-Circuit Characteristic
		4-11.2 Short-Circuit Test
		4-11.3 Unsaturated Synchronous Impedance
		4-11.4 Approximation of the Saturated Synchronous Reactance
	4-12 Voltage Regulation
	4-13 Short-Circuit Ratio
	4-14 Real and Reactive Power versus Power Angle
	4-15 Synchronous-Motor V Curves
	4-16 Excitation Systems for Synchronous Machines
		4-16.1 Brushless Excitation System
	4-17 Direct-Axis and Quadrature-Axis Synchronous Reactance in Salient-Pole Machines—Two-Reactance Theory
	4-18 Zero-Power-Factor Characteristic and Potier Triangle
		4-18.1 Graphical Determination of the Potier Triangle
		4-18.2 Potier Reactance
	4-19 Use of Potier Reactance to Account for Saturation
		4-19.1 Saturation-Factor Method
	4-20 Slip Test for Determining xd and xq
	4-21 Torque-Angle Characteristic of Salient-Pole Machines
		Power Associated with Iq
		Power Associated with Id
		Total Complex Power
	4-22 Synchronous-Motor Starting
	4-23 Features and Application of Synchronous Motors
	Study Questions
	Problems
	Bibliography
Chapter 5: The Induction Motor
	5-1 The Polyphase Induction Motor
	5-2 Magnetizing Reactance and Leakage Reactance
		5-2.1 Magnetizing Reactance
		5-2.2 Leakage Reactance
	5-3 Rotor Current and Slip
		5-3.1 Induction Motor Slip
		5-3.2 Rotor Current
	5-4 Rotor Copper Loss and Slip
	5-5 Equivalent Circuit of the Polyphase Wound-Rotor Induction Motor
		5-5.1 Approximate Equivalent Circuit with Adjusted Voltage
		5-5.2 Mechanical Power and Torque
		5-5.3 Phasor Diagram of the Polyphase Wound-Rotor Induction Motor
	5-6 Polyphase Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor
		5-6.1 Transformation Ratio of the Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor
		5-6.2 Double-Squirrel-Cage and Deep-Bar Motors
		5-6.3 Equivalent Circuits for Multiple-Cage Polyphase Induction Motors
		5-6.4 Skewing
	5-7 No-Load and Locked-Rotor Tests
		No-Load Test
		Locked-Rotor Test
	5-8 Polyphase-Induction Motor-Slip-Torque Relationship Based on Approximate Equivalent Circuit
		5-8.1 Starting Torque
		5-8.2 Maximum Torque
		5-8.3 Influence of Rotor Resistance on Slip
		5-8.4 Influence of Reactances on Motor Performance
	5-9 Wound-Rotor Motor Starting and Speed Control
	5-10 Speed Control of Polyphase Induction Motors
		5-10-1 Variable Frequency
		5-10.2 Line-Voltage Control
	5-11 Applications of Polyphase Induction Motors
	5-12 Reduced-Voltage Starting
	5-13 Asynchronous Generator
	5-14 Single-Phase Induction Motors
	5-15 Methods of Starting Single-Phase Induction Motors
	5-16 Two-Revolving-Field Theory
		5-16.1 Torque
		5-16.2 Double-Frequency Torque
	5-17 No-Load and Locked-Rotor Tests on the Single-Phase Induction Motor
		5-17.1 No-Load Test
		5-17.2 Locked-Rotor Test
		5-17.3 Winding Resistance Test
	5-18 The Capacitor Motor
		5-18.1 Equivalent Circuit of the Capacitor Motor Based on the Two-Revolving-Field Theory
		5-18.2 Torque
	Study Questions
	Problems
	Bibliography
Chapter 6: Direct-Current Machines
	6-1 Structural Features of Commutator Machines
	6-2 Elementary Machine
		6-2.1 Voltage Induced in a Full-Pitch Armature Coil
		6-2.2 General EMF Equation for DC Machines
	6-3 Armature Windings
		6-3.1 Lap Windings
		6-3.2 Wave Windings
	6-4 Field Excitation
	6-5 Armature Reaction—MMF and Flux Components
		6-5.1 Effect of Shifting Brushes from Geometric Neutral
		6-5.2 Commutating Poles or Interpoles
		6-5.3 Compensating Windings
		6-5.4 Ratio of Field mmf to Armature mmf
		6-5.5 Demagnetization Due to Cross-Magnetizing mmf
	6-6 Commutation
	6-7 Voltage Buildup in Self-Excited Generators—Critical Field Resistance
	6-8 Load Characteristics of Generators
		6-8.1 Separately Excited Generator
		6-8.2 Self-Excited Shunt Generator
		6-8.3 Series Generator
		6-8.4 Compound Generator
	6-9 Analysis of Steady-State Generator Performance
		6-9.1 Self-Excited Shunt Generator
		6-9.2 Effect of Speed on Shunt Generator Performance
		6-9.3 Series Generator Graphical Analysis
		6-9.4 Compound Generator
	6-10 Armature Characteristic or Field-Compounding Curve
	6-11 Compounding a Generator
	6-12 Efficiency and Losses
	6-13 Motor Torque
	6-14 Speed-Torque Characteristics
		6-14.1 Shunt Motor
		6-14.2 Series Motor
		6-14.3 Compound Motor
	6-15 Steady-State Characteristics of the Shunt Motor
	6-16 Steady-State Performance Characteristics of the Series Motor
	6-17 Compound-Motor Steady-State Performance Characteristics
	6-18 Motor Starting
	6-19 Dynamic and Regenerative Braking of Motors
	6-20 Dynamic Behavior of DC Machines
	6-21 Basic Motor Equations
	6-22 Linearization for Small-Signal Response
	6-23 Phasor Relationships for Small Oscillations
	6-24 Variable Armature Voltage, Constant Field Current
	6-25 The Separately Excited DC Motor as a Capacitor
	6-26 The Separately Excited DC Generator
	6-27 Transfer Functions for the Separately Excited Generator
	6-28 Control of Output Voltage
	6-29 The Ward-Leonard System
	6-30 Solid-State Controls for DC Machines
	6-31 Basic Similarities in Induction Machines, Synchronous Machines, and DC Machines
	6-32 Electromechanical Machines and Device Ratings
		Voltage
		Current
		Speed
		Frequency
		Power
		Temperature Rise
		Volt-Amperes
		Service Factor
		Efficiency Index
		Other Ratings
	6-33 Energy Management and Economic Considerations in Motor Selection
		6-33.1 Power Factor vs. Efficiency
		6-33.2 Calculating Annual Savings
		6-33.3 Higher-Efficiency Payback
		6-33.4 Time Value of Money, Present Worth, and Life Cycle
		6-33.5 Other Considerations
	Study Questions
	Problems
	Bibliography
Chapter 7: System Applications of Synchronous Machines
	7-1 Synchronous Generator Supplying an Isolated System
	7-2 Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators
		7-2.1 Requirements for Connecting Synchronous Generators in Parallel
		7-2.2 Loading a Synchronous Generator
		7-2.3 Equal Real-Power Loads and Equal Reactive-Power Loads
		7-2.4 Loci for Generated Voltage for Constant Terminal Voltage and Constant Frequency
		7-2.5 Locus of Generated Voltage for Constant Real Power and Variable Excitation
		7-2.6 Locus of Generated Voltage for Constant Excitation and Variable Real Power
	7-3 RMS Current on Three-Phase Short Circuit
	7-4 Salient-Pole Generator—General Relationships
		7-4.1 Inductances of Salient-Pole Machines
		7-4.2 d-Axis, q-Axis, and Zero-Sequence Quantities, Currents in Damper Circuits Negligible
	7-5 Instantaneous Three-Phase Short-Circuit Current
		Before Short Circuit
		After Short Circuit
		7-5.1 Subtransient Reactance
	7-6 Time Constants
		7-6.1 Direct-Axis Open-Circuit Time Constant, T\'do
		7-6.2 Direct-Axis Short-Circuit Transient Time Constant, T\'d
		7-6.3 Direct-Axis Short-Circuit Subtransient Time Constant, T\'\'d
		7-6.4 Armature Short-Circuit Time Constant, Ta
	7-7 Three-Phase Short Circuit from Loaded Conditions
	7-8 Transient Stability
		7-8.1 Equal-Area Criterion
		7-8.2 Transient Stability Limit
	7-9 Swing Curves
		7-9.1 The Swing Equation
		7-9.2 Swing Curves
	7-10 Dynamic Stability
		7-10.1 Dual Excitation
	Study Questions
	Problems
	Bibliography
Chapter 8: Special Machines
	8-1 Reluctance Motors
		8-1.2 Polyphase Reluctance Motors
	8-2 Hysteresis Motor
	8-3 Inductor Alternator
		8-3.1 Homopolar Type
		8-3.2 Heteropolar Type
	8-4 Step Motors
		8-4.1 Synchronous Inductor-Motor Operation
		8-4.2 Stepper Operation
		8-4.3 Bifilar Windings
	8-5 Ceramic Permanent-Magnet Motors
		8-5.1 Motor Characteristics
		8-5.2 Applications
	8-6 AC Commutator Motors
		8-6.1 Single-Phase Series Motor
		8-6.2 Universal Motors
		8-6.3 Repulsion Motor
	8-7 Control Motors
		8-7.1 AC Tachometer
		8-7.2 Two-Phase Control Motors
	8-8 Self-Synchronous Devices
		8-8.1 Three-Phase Selsyns
		8-8.2 Single-Phase Selsyns
		8-8.3 Synchro Control Transformers
	8-9 Acyclic Machines
		8-9.1 Acyclic Generators
		8-9.2 Linear Acyclic Machines—Conduction Pumps
		8-9.3 Induction Pumps
	8-10 Magnetohydrodynamic Generators
		8-10.1 Hall Effect
		8-10.2 MHD Steam Power Plants
		8-10.3 AC MHD
	Study Questions
	Problems
	Bibliography
Chapter 9: Direct Conversion to Electrical Energy
	9-1 Fuel Cells
	9-2 Thermoelectrics
		9-2.1 Maximum Output
		9-2.2 Figure of Merit
		9-2.3 Maximum Efficiency
	9-3 Thermionic Converter
		9-3.1 Work Function and Richardson’s Equation
		9-3.2 Space Charge
		9-3.3 Efficiency
		9-3.4 Maximum Output
		9-3.5 Applications
	9-4 Photovoltaic Generator
		9-4.1 Photons
		9-4.2 Solar Energy
	Study Questions
	Bibliography
APPENDIX A: Laplace Transformation
	A-1 The Laplace Transformation
	A-2 Transforms of Simple Functions
		A-2.1 Initial- and Final-Value Theorems
			Initial-Value Theorem
			Final-Value Theorem
APPENDIX B: Constants and Conversion Factors
APPENDIX C: Metadyne, Amplidyne, and Rotary Regulators
	C-1 Equations for the Metadyne
		C-1.1 Equations for the Amplidyne
	C-2 The Amplidyne
		C-2.1 Steady-State Performance
	C-3 The Rototrol and the Regulex
		C-3.1 Constant Motor Speed Control
Index