Electrodissolution Processes: Fundamentals and Applications

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Author
Chapter 1 Open-Circuit Metal Dissolution Processes
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Corrosion
		1.2.1 Types of Corrosion
		1.2.2 Fundamentals of Corrosion
			1.2.2.1 Corrosion Thermodynamics
			1.2.2.2 Corrosion Kinetics
		1.2.3 Pitting Corrosion
		1.2.4 Corrosion Prevention
	1.3 Chemical Etching
		1.3.1 Photochemical Etching
		1.3.2 Printed Circuit Boards
		1.3.3 Anisotropy Considerations
	1.4 Chemical Mechanical Polishing
		1.4.1 CMP in Copper Interconnect Technology
			1.4.1.1 Dishing and Erosion
		1.4.2 CMP Slurry Components
		1.4.3 Final Remarks
	References
Chapter 2 Anodic Behavior of Metals
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Active Dissolution
	2.3 Passivation
		2.3.1 Experimental Techniques for the Study of Passive Films
		2.3.2 Anodic Passive Films on Metals
			2.3.2.1 Passive Films on Ni, Fe, and Their Alloys
			2.3.2.2 Anodic Oxide Films on Valve Metals
	2.4 Transpassivity
		2.4.1 Pitting
		2.4.2 Film Oxidation and Electropolishing
		2.4.3 Oxygen Evolution and High-Rate Transpassive Dissolution
	2.5 Anodic Reaction Stoichiometry
	References
Chapter 3 Transpassive Films and Their Breakdown under ECM Conditions
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Factors Influencing Transpassive Dissolution
	3.3 Microscopic Investigation of Transpassive Film Breakdown
	3.4 AES/XPS Studies of Transpassive Films on Ni and Fe
		3.4.1 Transpassive Films on Nickel
		3.4.2 Transpassive Films on Iron
	3.5 Transpassive Dissolution Mechanism
	References
Chapter 4 Mass Transport and Current Distribution
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Mass Transport
		4.2.1 Convective Diffusion
		4.2.2 Anodic Limiting Current
		4.2.3 Mass Transport in Pulsating Current Dissolution
	4.3 Current Distribution
	4.4 Experimental Tools for the Investigation of High-Rate Anodic Dissolution Processes
		4.4.1 Rotating Disk Electrode
		4.4.2 Flow Channel Cell
	Appendix
	References
Chapter 5 High-Rate Anodic Dissolution of Fe, Ni, Cr, and Their Alloys
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Iron and Nickel in Chloride Electrolytes
	5.3 Iron and Nickel in Nitrate Electrolytes
	5.4 Iron and Nickel in Chlorate Electrolytes
	5.5 FeCr Alloys in Chloride and Nitrate Electrolytes
	5.6 Mass Transport-Controlled Salt Film Formation
	5.7 Pulsed Dissolution
	5.8 Influence of Metallurgical Factors
		5.8.1 Pitting and Grain Boundary Attack
		5.8.2 Flow Streak Formation
	References
Chapter 6 High-Rate Anodic Dissolution of Ti, W, and Their Carbides
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 High-Rate Anodic Dissolution of Titanium
		6.2.1 Anodic Behavior of Ti
		6.2.2 High-Rate Anodic Dissolution of Titanium and Titanium Alloys under ECM Conditions
	6.3 High-Rate Anodic Dissolution of Tungsten
		6.3.1 Anodic Behavior of Tungsten
		6.3.2 High-Rate Anodic Dissolution of Tungsten under ECM Conditions
	6.4 High-Rate Anodic Dissolution of Carbides of Ti and W
		6.4.1 Anodic Behavior of Ti and W Carbides
		6.4.2 High-Rate Anodic Dissolution of TiC, WC, and Hardmetals under ECM Conditions
	References
Chapter 7 Anodic Dissolution of Metals in Electropolishing Electrolytes
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Electropolishing of Selected Metals and Alloys: Rate-Controlling Species
		7.2.1 Copper
		7.2.2 Fe, Cr, and Their Alloys
			7.2.2.1 Fe
			7.2.2.2 Cr and FeCr Alloys
		7.2.3 Ti and NiTi Alloys
			7.2.3.1 Titanium
			7.2.3.2 NiTi (Shape Memory Alloy)
		7.2.4 Niobium
	7.3 Current Oscillations
	7.4 Transport Mechanism of Electropolishing
	References
Chapter 8 Electrochemical Machining
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 ECM Reactions
	8.3 Process Description
		8.3.1 ECM Equipment
		8.3.2 ECM Electrolytes
		8.3.3 The Interelectrode Gap
		8.3.4 Process Monitoring and Control
	8.4 Current Efficiency and Metal Removal Rate
	8.5 Mass Transport and Surface Finish
	8.6 Machining Accuracy
		8.6.1 Passivating Electrolytes
		8.6.2 Pulse ECM
		8.6.3 Other Methods
	8.7 Shape Prediction and Tool Design
	8.8 ECM Techniques and Applications
		8.8.1 Die Sinking and Combined Tool Machining
		8.8.2 Electrochemical Drilling
		8.8.3 Electrochemical Deburring
	8.9 Assisted ECM
		8.9.1 Electrochemical Grinding
		8.9.2 Ultrasonic-Assisted ECM
		8.9.3 Ultrasonic-Assisted ECG
		8.9.4 Electrochemical Honing
	8.10 Environmental and Safety Issues
	References
Chapter 9 Electrochemical Micromachining: Maskless Techniques
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Jet Electrochemical Micromachining
	9.3 Electrochemical Microdrilling
	9.4 Wire Electrochemical Micromachining
	9.5 Assisted Electrochemical Micromachining
		9.5.1 Laser-Assisted Jet Electrochemical Micromachining
		9.5.2 Vibration/Ultrasonic-Assisted Wire Electrochemical Micromachining
		9.5.3 Abrasive-Assisted Jet Electrochemical Micromachining
	9.6 EMM Case Studies
		9.6.1 Wire Electrochemical Micromachining of Aluminum Rings for the Fabrication of Corrugated Horns
		9.6.2 Electrochemical Saw Using Pulsating Voltage
	References
Chapter 10 Through-Mask Electrochemical Micromachining
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Photoresist and Lithography
	10.3 Mass Transport in a Cavity
	10.4 Shape Evolution Modeling
	10.5 TMEMM Challenges
		10.5.1 Uniformity Considerations
		10.5.2 Anisotropy Considerations
		10.5.3 Island-Formation Issues in One-Sided TMEMM
	10.6 TMEMM Tools
		10.6.1 One-Sided TMEMM Tool
		10.6.2 Two-Sided TMEMM Tool
		10.6.3 Precision Electroetching Tool for Semiconductor Processing
	10.7 TMEMM Applications: Case Studies
		10.7.1 Fabrication of Ink-Jet Nozzle Plates
		10.7.2 Fabrication of Cone Connectors
		10.7.3 Fabrication of Metal Masks
		10.7.4 TMEMM of Titanium for Biological Applications
		10.7.5 TMEMM of Titanium Using Laser Patterned Oxide Film Masks
	References
Chapter 11 Electropolishing in Practice
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Electropolishing Process Description
		11.2.1 Operating Conditions
		11.2.2 Monitoring and Control
		11.2.3 Surface Evaluation
		11.2.4 Quality Control
		11.2.5 Environmental Issues
	11.3 Applications
	11.4 Case Studies
		11.4.1 Electropolishing of Nitinol Stents
		11.4.2 Fabrication of STM Probes
		11.4.3 Electropolishing of Print Bands
	11.5 Assisted Electropolishing
		11.5.1 Magneto-Electropolishing
		11.5.2 Plasma Electropolishing
		11.5.3 Pulse and Pulse Reverse Electropolishing
	References
Chapter 12 Electrochemical Planarization of Copper Interconnects
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Planarization by Electropolishing
		12.2.1 Electropolishing Mechanism
		12.2.2 Planarization Issues
	12.3 Planarization by Electrochemical and Mechanical Actions
		12.3.1 Electrochemical Mechanical Deposition
		12.3.2 Electrochemical Mechanical Planarization
			12.3.2.1 Mechanical Factors
			12.3.2.2 Electrolyte Composition
	12.4 Removal of the Barrier Layer
	12.5 Summary and Final Remarks
	References
Index