Electrical Power Transmission and Distribution: Aging and Life Extension Techniques

Electrical Power Transmission and Distribution: Aging and Life Extension Techniques......Page 4
Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 22
Author......Page 24
Acronyms......Page 26
1.1.1 Silver Plating......Page 32
1.1.2 Tin Plating......Page 35
1.1.3 Nickel Plating......Page 37
1.2 Electroless Plating......Page 39
1.2.1 Electroless Nickel: Physical Properties......Page 40
1.2.3 Electroless Nickel: Electrical Resistivity......Page 42
1.3 Electroless Nickel as a Plating Alternative for Electrical Apparatuses in Corrosive Atmosphere......Page 43
1.3.1 Testing of EN for Use in Electrical Applications......Page 44
1.3.2 Field Testing of EN-Plated Electrical Equipment in Energized Conditions......Page 49
1.4.1 Zinc Electroplating......Page 54
1.4.2 Zinc Galvanization Processes......Page 55
1.4.3 Conversion Zn Plating: Passivation with CrIII or CrVI......Page 56
1.5.1 Whisker Phenomenon and Characteristics......Page 57
1.5.2 Tin Whisker Mitigation Techniques......Page 62
1.5.3 Tin Whiskers and the RoHS Initiative......Page 64
1.5.4 Whisker Mitigation Levels Classification......Page 65
1.5.5 Whiskers on Other Metal Platings......Page 66
1.6.1 Use of Aluminum in Electrical Industry......Page 68
1.6.3 Methods for Plating on Aluminum......Page 70
1.6.4 Quality of Tin Plating on Al for Different Plating Techniques......Page 72
1.7.1 National and International Standards and Regulations on Plating......Page 76
1.8 Plating Glossary......Page 78
References......Page 89
2.1.1 General Precautions in Using Tin Plating......Page 94
2.1.2 Thermal Deterioration of Tin Plating on Aluminum......Page 95
2.1.3 Tin Pest......Page 101
2.2.1 Mitigating Role of Underplating......Page 104
2.2.2 Advantages of Nickel as Underplating......Page 105
2.2.3 Recommended Thickness of Nickel Underplating......Page 107
2.3.1 Use of Ni Underplating for Tin Plating on Copper......Page 108
2.3.2 Nickel Underplating as a Tin Whisker Mitigation Technique......Page 109
2.3.3 Ni Underplating for Tin Plating on Aluminum......Page 111
2.3.4 Ni Underplating for Gold Plating......Page 115
2.4.1 Hazard: Galvanic Corrosion......Page 116
2.4.2 Definition of Dissimilar Metals......Page 117
2.4.3 Galvanic Corrosion of Copper-to-Aluminum Connections......Page 118
2.4.4 Protection of Copper-to-Aluminum Connections from Galvanic Corrosion......Page 119
2.4.5 Galvanic Corrosion in Steel Connections with Aluminum and Other Metals......Page 121
2.4.6 General Precautions to Minimize Galvanic Corrosion in Connections......Page 122
2.5.1 Intermetallic Compounds......Page 123
2.5.2 Fretting Corrosion and a Means of Protection......Page 125
References......Page 127
3.1.1 Types of Corrosive Atmospheres......Page 130
3.1.2 Factors Affecting Atmospheric Corrosion......Page 132
3.1.3 Airborne Contamination in Data Centers......Page 135
3.1.4 Zinc Whiskers......Page 136
3.2.1 Iron and Steel in Enclosures, Frames, Rails, and so Forth......Page 137
3.2.2 Copper and Copper Alloys: Parts of the Conductive Path......Page 138
3.2.4 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys in Electrical Applications......Page 139
3.3 Atmospheric Corrosion of Silver Plating......Page 141
3.3.1 Silver Plating Corrosion and Tarnish......Page 142
3.3.2 Red-Plaque Corrosion......Page 144
3.3.3 Underplating Corrosion......Page 146
3.3.5 Corrosion of a Copper Bus with Flash Silver Plating......Page 147
3.4.1 Silver Tarnish and Contact Electrical Resistance......Page 148
3.4.2 Techniques of Tarnish Cleaning......Page 151
3.5.1 History of Silver Whiskers......Page 152
3.5.2 Factors That Affect the Growth of Silver Whiskers......Page 153
3.5.4 Study of the Silver Whisker Phenomenon......Page 154
3.5.5 Silver Whiskers Puzzle......Page 158
3.6 Tin Plating Corrosion......Page 159
3.6.2 Reaction of Tin with Other Gases......Page 160
3.7.1 Atmospheric Corrosion of Zn......Page 161
3.7.2 White Rust on Zinc......Page 162
3.7.3 Galvanized Steel......Page 163
3.7.4 Signs of Galvanized Steel Corrosion......Page 164
3.7.5 Factors Affecting Galvanized Steel Corrosion......Page 166
3.7.6 Corrosion of Galvanized Steel in Circuit Breaker......Page 167
3.8.1 Protective Coatings for Conductive Parts, Enclosures, and Frames......Page 168
3.8.2  Means of Protection from Silver Corrosion......Page 170
3.8.3 Conversion Treatment......Page 171
3.8.5 Means of Preventing the Corrosion of Zinc-Plated Steel Parts in Electrical Equipment......Page 172
3.8.7 Lubrication......Page 173
3.9.1 Assessment of Electrical and Electronic Equipment Exposure to Corrosive Environment......Page 174
3.9.2 Air Quality Monitoring......Page 175
3.9.4 Corrosion Control Technology......Page 176
3.9.6 Temperature Control......Page 178
3.10 Corrosion Glossary......Page 179
References......Page 191
4.1.1 Purpose of Lubrication......Page 196
4.1.2 Lubrication Terminology......Page 197
4.1.3 Types of Lubricating Materials......Page 198
4.1.4 Grease Composition and Properties......Page 200
4.2.1 Definition of Incompatibility......Page 204
4.2.2 Causes of Incompatibility......Page 205
4.3.1 Lubricant Working Temperature......Page 207
4.3.2 Lubricant Storage Conditions and Shelf Life......Page 208
4.4 Lubrication of Electrical Contacts......Page 209
4.4.2 Choice of Lubricants Based on Design and Contact/Plating Materials......Page 210
4.4.3 Lubrication as Protection from Fretting Corrosion, Mechanical Wear, and Friction......Page 214
4.4.4 Lubrication as Protection from Corrosion......Page 215
4.4.5 Durability of Lubricants......Page 216
4.5.1 Periodic Lubrication Maintenance of Electrical Power Equipment......Page 217
4.5.2 General Lubrication Recommendations for Electrical Equipment......Page 218
4.6.1 Causes of Lubrication Failure......Page 220
4.6.3 Thermal Limitations......Page 221
4.6.5 Contaminants or Corrosives in the Lubricant......Page 222
4.6.6 Environmental Factors Causing Grease Deterioration......Page 223
4.7.1 CB Failures Caused by Lubrication at U.S. Commercial Nuclear Power Plants......Page 224
4.7.2 Overheating of the MV Switch......Page 225
4.8 Informational Sources for Lubricants......Page 229
C......Page 232
D–E......Page 233
H......Page 234
O......Page 235
P–R......Page 236
V......Page 237
W–Z......Page 238
References......Page 239
5.1.1 Insulating Materials Used in the Electrical Industry......Page 246
5.1.2 Thermal Limitation for Electrical Insulation......Page 250
5.1.3 Thermal Degradation of Insulators......Page 253
5.1.4 Temperature Limitations for Switchgear Assembly Based on Insulation Class......Page 254
5.2.1 Electrical Breakdown in Insulation......Page 255
5.2.2 Corona......Page 256
5.2.3 Partial Discharge......Page 258
5.3.1 Insulation Deterioration under Environmental Conditions......Page 262
5.3.3 Environmental Aging of Insulators in Transmission Lines......Page 263
5.3.4 Stress Corrosion Cracking in Composite Insulators......Page 264
5.4.1 Types of Bushings......Page 265
5.4.2 Bushings: Possible Causes of Failures......Page 266
5.5 Power Cable Insulation......Page 267
5.5.1 Cable Insulation Types......Page 268
5.5.2 Aging of Cable Insulating Materials......Page 269
5.6.1 Insulating Oil......Page 270
5.6.2 Sulfur Hexaflouride (SF6) as Insulating and Cooling Media......Page 274
5.6.3 Air and Vacuum as Insulating Media......Page 275
5.7.1 Electrical Enclosures: Types and Materials......Page 276
5.7.2 Powder Coating/Paint Used for Enclosures......Page 277
5.7.3 Defects and Failures of Powder Coatings and Paints......Page 280
5.7.4 HV RTV Coating......Page 282
5.8.1 National and International Standards and Regulations on Insulation......Page 284
5.8.2 Insulation Glossary......Page 287
References......Page 294
6.1.1 Estimation of Electrical Equipment Lifetime......Page 300
6.1.2 Overloading and Estimated Life of Electrical Equipment......Page 301
6.1.3 Temperature and Estimated Life of Electrical Equipment......Page 302
6.2.1 Aging Factors......Page 303
6.2.2 Aging Equipment in an Industrial Environment......Page 304
6.2.3 Aging Equipment in Power Generation and Transmission and Distribution......Page 305
6.2.4 Aging Power Equipment in a Residential Environment......Page 306
6.2.5 Aging Electrical Equipment in Rural/Agricultural Applications......Page 308
6.3.1 Definitions of Failure, Failure Mode, and Failure Rate of Electrical Equipment......Page 309
6.3.2 The Bath Tub Curve, the Hypothetical Failure Rate vs. Time......Page 310
6.3.3 Failure Causes of CBs......Page 311
6.3.4 Failure Causes and Failure Rates of Power Transformers......Page 313
6.3.5 Failure Causes of MV Switchgear......Page 314
6.3.6 Failure Causes of Other MV and LV Power Electrical Equipment......Page 315
6.3.7 Failure Causes of Power Connectors......Page 316
6.3.8 Inadequate Maintenance and Maintenance Quality as a Cause of Failure......Page 318
6.4 Failure Causes and Rates of Electrical Equipment Based on CIGRÉ Survey......Page 319
6.4.1 Results of the Older CIGRÉ Surveys of HV CB Failures......Page 320
6.4.2 Failure Causes of GIS......Page 321
6.4.3 Failure Causes of SF6 CBs......Page 324
6.5.1 Failures of HV Bushings......Page 325
6.5.2 Failures of HV Transformers......Page 326
6.5.3 Failure Mechanisms of HV Transformers and Bushings......Page 327
6.5.4 Failures of HV CBs......Page 328
6.6.1 Bushing Failures in MV Switchgear......Page 330
6.6.2 Case Studies of MV Switchgear Failures......Page 331
6.6.3 Metal-Clad Switchgear Failures......Page 333
6.6.5 LV Switchboard Failure......Page 334
References......Page 336
7 Physical Conditions of Electrical Equipment......Page 340
7.1.4 Switchgear......Page 341
7.2 Techniques for Testing Physical Conditions of MV Cables......Page 342
7.2.1 Comparison of MV Cable Testing Techniques......Page 343
7.2.2 High Potential Withstand Test......Page 344
7.2.3 PD Diagnostics......Page 346
7.2.4 Choice of MV Cable Diagnostics......Page 347
7.3.1 Insulation Condition: PD Testing......Page 348
7.3.2 Diagnostics of Oil Condition......Page 350
7.4 Online Monitoring Techniques for PD of MV Substations, Switchgear, and Cables......Page 355
7.4.2 Monitoring PDs with Fiber-Optic Technology......Page 356
7.5 Testing of HV Bushing Conditions......Page 357
7.6 Thermal Conditions of Electrical Equipment and Temperature Monitoring......Page 358
7.6.2 Continuous Temperature Measurement......Page 359
7.6.3 Fiber-Optic Technology for Temperature Measurement......Page 360
7.6.4 Winding Temperature Monitoring of HV Transformers with the Fiber-Optic Technique......Page 362
7.6.5 Wireless Temperature Monitoring......Page 363
7.7.2 Overhead Transmission Lines......Page 367
7.7.3 Properties of Transmission Overhead Lines to Monitor, Sensing Elements and Monitoring Techniques......Page 369
References......Page 373
8.1 Maintenance Strategies......Page 378
8.2.2 Maintenance of Power Circuit Breakers......Page 380
8.2.3 Periodic Lubrication of the Power Circuit Breaker......Page 382
8.2.4 Refurbishment or Reconditioning......Page 383
8.2.5 Condition-Based Maintenance......Page 385
8.3.1 Distribution Power Transformers......Page 387
8.3.2 Power Cable Systems......Page 389
8.4.1 Water-Damaged Electrical Equipment......Page 391
8.4.2 Electrical Equipment in Nuclear Industry......Page 392
References......Page 394
Index......Page 398
Color Plates......Page 414