Electric Power Substations Engineering, Third Edition

Electric Power Substations Engineering, Third Edition......Page 4
Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 8
Editor......Page 10
Contributors......Page 12
1.1 Background......Page 14
1.3 Budgeting......Page 15
1.5 Traditional and Innovative Substation Design......Page 16
1.6 Site Selection and Acquisition......Page 17
1.7.1 Station Design......Page 18
References......Page 21
2.1 Sulfur Hexafluoride......Page 22
2.2 Construction and Service Life......Page 24
2.2.2 Current Transformers......Page 26
2.2.4 Disconnect Switches......Page 27
2.2.5 Ground Switches......Page 28
2.2.6 Interconnecting Bus......Page 29
2.2.8 Power Cable Connections......Page 30
2.2.9 Direct Transformer Connections......Page 31
2.2.10 Surge Arrester......Page 32
2.2.11 Control System......Page 34
2.2.13 Gas Compartments and Zones......Page 35
2.2.14 Electrical and Physical Arrangement......Page 36
2.2.15 Grounding......Page 37
2.2.18 Operation and Interlocks......Page 38
References.......Page 39
3.2 Single Bus Arrangement......Page 42
3.3 Double Bus–Double Breaker Arrangement......Page 43
3.4 Main and Transfer Bus Arrangement......Page 44
3.5 Double Bus–Single Breaker Arrangement......Page 45
3.7 Breaker-and-a-Half Arrangement......Page 46
3.8 Comparison of Configurations......Page 48
4.2 Ambient Conditions......Page 50
4.3 Disconnect Switches......Page 51
4.4 Load Break Switches......Page 62
4.6 Power Fuses......Page 66
4.7 Circuit Switchers......Page 68
4.8 Circuit Breakers......Page 71
5.1 Introduction......Page 76
5.2 HVDC Converters......Page 77
5.3 FACTS Controllers......Page 93
5.4 Converter Technologies: For Smart Power and Grid Access......Page 98
5.5 Control and Protection System......Page 103
5.6 Losses and Cooling......Page 106
5.8 Reliability and Availability......Page 107
5.9 Outlook and Future Trends......Page 108
References......Page 112
6.1.1 Components of a Substation Automation System......Page 118
6.1.2 Locating Interfaces......Page 119
6.1.4 Electrical Environment......Page 121
6.2.1 What Measurements Are Needed......Page 122
6.2.2 Performance Requirements......Page 123
6.2.3 Characteristics of Digitized Measurements......Page 125
6.2.4.1 Current Transformers......Page 128
6.2.5 New Measuring Technology......Page 130
6.2.7.1 Transducers......Page 131
6.2.8 Scaling Measured Values......Page 132
6.2.9 Integrated Energy Measurements: Pulse Accumulators......Page 133
6.3.2 Ambiguity......Page 134
6.3.3 Wetting Sources......Page 135
6.4.1 Interposing Relays......Page 136
6.4.2 Control Circuit Designs......Page 137
6.4.4 Intelligent Electronic Devices for Control......Page 138
6.5.2 Point-to-Multipoint Networks......Page 139
6.5.4 Optical Fiber Systems......Page 140
6.5.4.1 Fiber Loops......Page 141
6.5.5 Communications between Facilities......Page 142
6.6 Testing Automation Systems......Page 143
6.6.1.3 Measurements......Page 144
6.6.3 In-Service Testing......Page 145
References......Page 146
7.1 Introduction......Page 148
7.3.2 Nonoperational Data......Page 149
7.4 Data Flow......Page 150
7.5 Asset Management......Page 151
7.7 System Integration Technical Issues......Page 152
7.7.2 Understanding System Architecture: Documentation......Page 153
7.7.4.1 RS-232/EIA-232......Page 154
7.7.4.4 Fiber Optics......Page 155
7.7.5.5 Hybrid Topologies......Page 156
7.8.1 Remote Terminal Unit......Page 157
7.8.4 Protocol Convertors......Page 158
7.8.8 Human Machine Interface......Page 159
7.8.9 Ethernet Switches......Page 160
7.10 Automation Applications......Page 161
7.11.3 Session (Layer 5)......Page 162
7.12.1 DNP 3.0......Page 163
7.12.4 Modbus......Page 164
7.12.5.2 GOOSE......Page 165
7.13 Synchrophasors......Page 166
7.13.3 Phasor Data Concentrator......Page 167
Bibliography......Page 168
8 Oil Containment......Page 170
8.1.4 Oil-Handling Equipment......Page 171
8.1.7 Spill Risk Assessment......Page 172
8.2 Containment Selection Consideration......Page 173
8.3.1.2 Substation Ditching......Page 174
8.3.1.4 Oil-Containment Equipment Pits......Page 175
8.3.1.6 Volume Requirements......Page 176
8.3.1.7 Typical Equipment Containment Solutions......Page 177
8.3.2 Discharge Control Systems......Page 179
8.3.2.1 Oil–Water Separator Systems......Page 180
8.3.2.2 Flow Blocking Systems......Page 181
8.4 Warning Alarms and Monitoring......Page 183
References......Page 184
9.1 Community Acceptance......Page 186
9.2.1.1 Wetlands......Page 187
9.2.2.1 Visual Simulation......Page 188
9.2.2.3 Color......Page 189
9.2.2.6 Enclosures......Page 190
9.2.2.8 Noise Sources......Page 191
9.2.2.10 Governmental Regulations......Page 192
9.2.2.11 Noise Abatement Methods......Page 193
9.2.3.2 Electric Fields......Page 194
9.2.4.2 Lighting......Page 195
9.3.1.2 Site Access Roads......Page 196
9.4.1.1 Water and Sediment Control......Page 197
9.4.3 Hazardous Material......Page 198
References......Page 199
10 Animal Deterrents/ Security......Page 200
10.1.2 Squirrels......Page 201
10.1.5 Raccoons......Page 202
10.2.3 Insulation......Page 203
10.2.4 Isolation Devices......Page 204
11.1 Reasons for Substation Grounding System......Page 206
11.2.1 Conditions......Page 207
11.2.2 Permissible Body Current Limits......Page 210
11.2.3 Importance of High-Speed Fault Clearing......Page 211
11.2.4 Tolerable Voltages......Page 212
11.3.1.1 Mesh Voltage (Em)......Page 214
11.3.1.2 Step Voltage (Es)......Page 217
11.3.1.2.1 Geometrical Factor Ks......Page 218
11.3.2 Soil Resistivity......Page 219
11.3.3.1 Resistance......Page 220
11.3.4 Grid Current......Page 222
11.3.4.1 Current Division Consideration......Page 223
11.3.6.1 Materials......Page 224
11.3.6.3 Symmetrical Currents......Page 225
11.3.7 Selection of Connections......Page 226
References......Page 227
12.1 Lightning Stroke Protection......Page 230
12.2.1 Strike Distance......Page 231
12.2.2 Stroke Current Magnitude......Page 232
12.2.3 Keraunic Level......Page 233
12.3.1 Fixed Angles......Page 234
12.3.2.1 Areas Protected by Lightning Masts......Page 235
12.4 The Electrogeometric Model (EGM)......Page 236
12.4.4 A Revised EGM......Page 238
12.4.4.2 Allowable Stroke Current......Page 239
12.4.5 Application of the EGM by the Rolling Sphere Method......Page 240
12.4.5.1 Protection Against Stroke Current Is......Page 241
12.4.5.3 Protection against Stroke Currents Less than Is......Page 242
12.4.6 Multiple Shielding Electrodes......Page 244
12.4.7 Changes in Voltage Level......Page 245
12.4.9 Application of Revised EGM by Mousa and Srivastava Method......Page 246
References......Page 248
13.1 Earthquakes and Substations......Page 252
13.2.1 Importance of Standards......Page 255
13.2.2 IEEE 693 and Complementary Standards......Page 256
13.3 Seismic Design Process......Page 257
13.4.1 Qualification Levels and Design Earthquake......Page 258
13.4.2 Selection of Qualification Level......Page 259
13.4.3 Methods of Qualification......Page 261
13.4.4 Equipment Supports......Page 263
13.4.5 Performance Level and Projected Performance Level......Page 264
13.5 Installation......Page 265
References......Page 266
14 Substation Fire Protection......Page 268
14.1.2.2 Indirect Fire-Related Impacts......Page 269
14.1.4 Compliance......Page 270
14.2.2 Automatic Fire Protection......Page 271
14.2.5 Incident Management and Preparedness......Page 272
14.3.2 Control of Ignition Sources......Page 273
14.3.4 Specific Substation Building Hazards......Page 274
14.3.5 Switchyard Hazards......Page 275
14.4.1 Substation Site–Related Fire Protection......Page 276
14.4.2.1.1 Fire Alarm System......Page 277
14.4.3 Exit Facilities......Page 278
14.4.5 Active Fire Protection Measures......Page 279
14.4.7.1.1 Spatial Separation......Page 280
14.4.7.1.4 Fire Barriers......Page 282
14.4.7.2.1 Automatic Fire Protection Systems......Page 283
14.4.7.3.2 Water Supplies......Page 284
14.4.9 Economic Risk Analysis Example......Page 285
14.5.1 Fire Safety Plan......Page 286
14.5.2 Operations Plan......Page 287
14.5.5 Fire Recovery......Page 288
14.A.3 Fire Protection Assessment......Page 289
14.B.2 Radiant Exposure Assessment......Page 290
References......Page 291
15 Substation Communications......Page 294
15.2 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition: Historical Perspective......Page 295
15.3 SCADA Functional Requirements......Page 297
15.5 Relay Communication Requirements......Page 298
15.5.1 Communications and the Smart Grid......Page 299
15.5.4 Quality of Service......Page 300
15.6 Components of a SCADA System......Page 301
15.7 Structure of a SCADA Communication Protocol......Page 302
15.8 SCADA Communication Protocols: Past, Present, and Future......Page 304
15.8.3 UCA 1.0......Page 306
15.8.8 Continuing Work......Page 307
15.9.1 SCADA Security Attacks......Page 308
15.9.4 Encryption......Page 309
15.10 Electromagnetic Environment......Page 310
15.11.1 Advanced Radio Data Information Service......Page 311
15.11.3 Digital Microwave......Page 312
15.11.5 Hybrid Fiber/Coax......Page 313
15.11.9 Mobitex Packet Radio......Page 314
15.11.11 Power Line Carrier......Page 315
15.11.13 Short Message System......Page 316
15.12.1 Telephone Lines: Leased and Dial-Up......Page 317
15.12.3 Digital Subscriber Loop......Page 318
15.12.5 Frame Relay......Page 319
15.12.8 Multiprotocol Label Switching......Page 320
15.13.2 Power System Relay Communication References......Page 321
15.13.3.3 IEC 60870 Standards for Telecommunication......Page 322
15.13.3.5 IEC 60870-6 TASE.2 (UCA/ICCP) Control System Communications......Page 323
15.13.3.6 IEC 61850/UCA Standards for Substation Systems......Page 324
15.13.3.7 IEC 61968 Standards for Distribution Application Integration......Page 325
15.13.3.8 IEC 61970 Standards for Energy Management System Integration......Page 326
15.13.3.10 ISO Reference Models (Available from www.iso.ch)......Page 327
16.1 Introduction......Page 328
16.1.1 Definitions......Page 329
16.2.2 As an Essential Service......Page 330
16.2.4.1 IEEE Standard 1402-2000, IEEE Guide for Electric Power Substation Physical and Electronic Security......Page 331
16.3.1 Presence, Capability, and Intent......Page 332
16.3.2.2 Thieves......Page 333
16.3.2.5 Terrorists......Page 334
16.4.1 Criticality Assessment......Page 335
16.4.3 Risk Assessment......Page 336
16.5 Risk Management......Page 337
16.6.2 Federal Government......Page 338
16.7 Implementation (Methods)......Page 339
16.7.1.1 Fences and Walls......Page 340
16.7.1.5 Grounding and Ground Mats......Page 341
16.7.1.10 Clear Areas and Safety Zones......Page 342
16.7.1.12 Intrusion Detection Systems......Page 343
16.7.1.17 SCADA/Communication Equipment......Page 344
16.7.2 System Methods......Page 345
16.7.4 Management/Organizational Methods......Page 346
References......Page 347
17.1 Introduction......Page 348
17.2 Definitions and Terminology......Page 351
17.3.1 SA System Security Misconceptions......Page 354
17.3.2 SA System Threat Actors......Page 357
17.4.1 Slow Processors with Stringent Real-Time Constraints......Page 358
17.4.4 Open Protocols......Page 359
17.4.6 Organizational Issues......Page 360
17.5.1.1 Cyber Intrusion from inside the Corporate Network......Page 361
17.5.1.1.1 Password Policies......Page 362
17.5.1.2 Cyber Intrusion from outside the Corporate Network......Page 363
17.5.1.2.1 SCADA Communication Lines......Page 364
17.5.1.2.2 Dial-Up Lines to IEDs......Page 365
17.5.2 Detecting Cyber Intrusion......Page 368
17.5.3 Responding to Cyber Intrusion......Page 370
17.6 Devising a Security Program......Page 371
17.7 Future Measures......Page 372
17.7.5 Incident Reporting Sites......Page 373
17.7.7 Developed and Emerging Technical Standards and Guidelines......Page 374
References......Page 375
18.1 Introduction......Page 378
18.2 History......Page 379
18.3.2 Standard Units......Page 381
18.3.3.2 Aboveground Installation......Page 383
18.3.3.3 Tunnel Laid......Page 385
18.4 Development and Prototypes......Page 387
18.4.1 Gas Mixture......Page 388
18.4.2.2 Internal-Arc Test......Page 389
18.4.3 Long-Duration Tests......Page 390
18.4.3.1 Long-Duration Test on a Tunnel-Laid GIL......Page 393
18.4.3.2 Long-Duration Test on a Directly Buried GIL......Page 394
18.4.3.3.2 Calculation Model......Page 397
18.4.3.3.3 Comparison of Calculations and the Test Results......Page 398
18.4.3.3.4 Mechanical Aspects......Page 400
18.5.1 Safety and Gas Handling......Page 401
18.5.2.2 Measurements of the Magnetic Field at PALEXPO, Geneva......Page 402
18.6.1 Tunnel-Laid GIL......Page 403
18.6.2 Directly Buried GIL......Page 406
18.7 Quality Control and Diagnostic Tools......Page 407
18.8.1 Passive Corrosion Protection......Page 408
18.9.2 Maximum Stresses by Lightning Strokes......Page 410
18.9.5 Results of Calculations......Page 411
18.10.1 Metropolitan Areas......Page 412
18.10.2 Use of Traffic Tunnels......Page 414
18.11.1 Introduction......Page 415
18.11.2 Transmission Net Requirements......Page 416
18.11.3 Technical Solutions......Page 417
18.11.5 Cost of Transmission Losses......Page 418
References......Page 419
19 Substation Asset Management......Page 422
19.1 Business-Driven Approach......Page 423
19.1.1.2 Multiple Objectives......Page 424
19.1.1.3 Risk Management......Page 425
19.1.2 Coordinated Cross-Functional Decision Making......Page 426
19.2.1 Portfolio Management of Projects and Resources......Page 427
19.2.3 Prioritization Based on Total KPI Contribution......Page 428
19.2.4 Probabilistic Risk Management......Page 429
19.2.5 Managing an Aging Infrastructure to a Sustainable Point......Page 431
19.2.5.1 Useful Management Concept......Page 432
19.2.5.1.2 Practical Issues of Lifetime Management......Page 433
19.3.1 Shift from Standards-Driven to Business-Based Management......Page 435
19.3.2 Pareto Curves and the Efficient Frontier......Page 436
19.3.3 Use of Risk-Based Asset Management Methods......Page 438
19.4.1 Substation Example......Page 440
19.4.2 Implementing Project Evaluation and Portfolio Selection......Page 442
19.4.2.1 Constraints Are a Key to Practical Success......Page 443
19.4.2.2 Conditional Approval in Risk-Based Planning......Page 445
19.4.4 Limiting “Must-Do” Projects......Page 446
19.5 Changes in Philosophy and Approach......Page 447
19.5.1 Asset Management Does Not Lower Standards......Page 448
19.6 Substation Asset Management......Page 449
19.6.1 Utilization and Life Cycle Management......Page 450
19.6.2 Condition-Based Maintenance......Page 452
19.6.3 “Big Bad Outages” and Setting Priorities for Substations......Page 453
19.6.5.1 Change in Perspective and Culture......Page 454
19.6.5.2 Organization of All Capital Investment “Causes” into One Process......Page 455
19.7 Summary......Page 457
References......Page 458
20.1.1 Testing......Page 460
20.1.2 Coordination......Page 461
20.1.4 Notification......Page 462
20.2.2.1 Development and Ownership Establishment of Specific Items......Page 463
20.2.3.1 Construction Drawings......Page 464
20.2.4.1 Resolve Outstanding Issues or Conflicts......Page 465
20.2.4.3 Submit Invoices for Reimbursable Items or Services......Page 466
20.2.5.2 Permit Closure Process or Final Governing Agency Inspections......Page 467
20.2.7 Develop Unit Costs......Page 468
20.2.9.1 Project Completed......Page 469
20.2.10 Development of Lessons Learned......Page 470
21.1 Why Storage?......Page 472
21.2 Wholesale Energy Applications......Page 474
21.5 Transmission Time/Load Shifting......Page 475
21.6 Stability-Related Applications......Page 476
21.7 Transmission/ Distribution Deferral......Page 477
21.9 Community Energy Storage......Page 478
21.10 Transmission and Distribution Capital Deferral......Page 480
21.12 Why Solar-Storage Applications?......Page 481
21.14 Energy Storage Technologies......Page 482
21.16 Nickel-Cadmium and Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries......Page 483
21.18 Sodium-Sulfur Batteries......Page 485
21.19 Zinc-Bromine Batteries......Page 486
21.20 Vanadium Redox Batteries......Page 487
21.21 Flywheels......Page 489
21.22 Technologies in Development......Page 490
21.23 Comparing Technologies......Page 491
22.1.1 Smart Grid or Smarter Grid?......Page 494
22.1.2 Smart Grid Drivers......Page 496
22.1.3 Benefits, More Than a Business Case......Page 497
22.1.4 Technology Framework......Page 499
22.2 Transformation of the Grid......Page 500
22.2.1 Engineering and Design......Page 501
22.2.3 Operation and Maintenance......Page 502
22.3 Substation Technology Advances......Page 503
22.4 Platform for Smart Feeder Applications......Page 507
22.5.1 Paradigm Shift in Substation Design......Page 508
22.5.2 Interoperability and IEC 61850......Page 510
22.5.3 Impact of IEC 61850 in the Substation......Page 515
22.5.4 Station Bus–Based Architecture......Page 517
22.5.5 Station and Process Bus Architecture......Page 519
22.5.6 Summary......Page 521
22.6 Smart Grid, Where Do We Go from Here?......Page 522
References......Page 523