Electric Power Distribution, Automation, Protection, and Control

Cover......Page 1
Half  Title Page......Page 2
Copyright......Page 4
Title Page......Page 5
Contents......Page 7
Preface......Page 17
Author......Page 19
1.1 Historical Background......Page 21
1.2 Distribution System Topology and Structure......Page 22
1.3 Distribution Automation (DA) and Control......Page 25
1.4 Summary......Page 26
2.2 Complex Power Concepts......Page 29
2.2.1 Power Equations......Page 31
2.2.2 Single-Phase Power Formulations......Page 33
2.2.3 Balanced Three-Phase Power Formulations......Page 34
2.3.1 Wye- or Y-Connected System......Page 35
2.3.2 Delta- or Δ -Connected System......Page 36
2.4 Power Relationship for 3φ Y-Δ-Connected System......Page 38
2.5 Per-Unit System......Page 39
2.5.1 Conversion of a Per Unit from a New Base of Reference......Page 40
2.5.2 Per-Unit Formulations for 3φ System......Page 41
2.6 Calculation of Power Losses......Page 42
2.7.1 Capacitor Banks for Voltage Regulation and Power Factor Correction......Page 44
2.7.2 Tap-Changing Method for Voltage Regulation......Page 46
2.7.3 Voltage-Regulating Transformers......Page 47
2.7.4 Phase Shifter or Regulating Transformer......Page 48
2.8 Voltage-Sag Analysis and Calculation......Page 50
2.9.2 Distribution Transformers......Page 51
2.9.3 Autotransformer Model......Page 54
2.9.4 Cogenerator Model......Page 55
2.9.6 Inverter-Connected Generator in Photovoltaic Systems......Page 56
2.10.1 Line Model in Distribution Systems......Page 57
2.10.4 Load Models......Page 58
2.10.5 SVC Device Model......Page 59
2.11 Distribution System Line Model......Page 60
2.12 Distribution Power Flow Analysis......Page 61
2.14 Review of Classical Power Flow Methods......Page 63
2.14.2 Newton-Raphson Method......Page 64
2.14.3 Fast-Decouple Power Flow......Page 65
2.15.1 Description of Distribution Power Flow Methodologies......Page 67
2.16.1 Distribution Transformer Considered for Use as a Step-Down Autotransformer......Page 73
2.16.2 Transformer Short Circuit during an Open-Circuit Test......Page 74
2.16.3 Unbalanced Set of Voltages......Page 76
2.16.4 Newton-Raphson Method......Page 77
2.16.5 Polar Formulation of Load-Flow Equations......Page 79
2.16.6 Gauss-Seidel Method......Page 81
2.17 Summary......Page 83
3.1 Introduction......Page 87
3.1.1 Introduction to Symmetrical Components......Page 88
3.1.2 Sequence Networks Used in Fault Analysis......Page 89
3.2 Single Line-to-Ground Fault......Page 94
3.3 Double Line-to-Ground Fault on Phase B and C......Page 96
3.4 Three-Phase Fault Analysis......Page 98
3.5.1 Single Line-to-Ground Fault......Page 100
3.5.2 Line-to-Line Fault......Page 101
3.6 Protection Systems......Page 103
3.6.2 Instrument Transformers......Page 104
3.6.3 Reclosers......Page 106
3.6.4 Fuses......Page 107
3.7 Protective Relay Technology......Page 109
3.7.1 Digital Relaying......Page 110
3.7.3 Induction Disc Relays......Page 111
3.8 System Protection in General......Page 117
3.9.1 Line Protection with Impedance Distance Relays......Page 118
3.9.2 Mho Relays......Page 119
3.9.3 Ohm Relays......Page 121
3.9.4 Generator, Buses, and Transformer......Page 123
3.10.1 Example 1......Page 125
3.10.2 Example 2......Page 126
3.10.3 Example 3......Page 127
3.10.4 Example 4, Three-Phase Fault......Page 128
3.10.5 Example 5, Single-Line-to-Ground (SLG) Fault......Page 130
3.11 Summary......Page 132
4.1 Introduction......Page 135
4.2.1 Inputs Required for Historical Assessment......Page 136
4.3 Terminology/Definitions......Page 137
4.4 Reliability Indices......Page 138
4.5 Methods of Reliability Analysis......Page 142
4.5.2 State Space Diagrams......Page 143
4.7 Event-Tree Analysis Method......Page 145
4.8 Fault-Tree Analysis Method......Page 146
4.9.1 Fault Tree Based on Minimal Cut Set......Page 147
4.9.2 Nonminimal Cut Set in Complete Unavailability......Page 150
4.9.3 Summary of Findings Using Minimal Cut Sets to Identify Causes of Failures......Page 151
4.10 Simulation Techniques for Reliability Analysis......Page 152
4.11.1 Monte Carlo Simulation Method......Page 153
4.13.1 DISREL......Page 155
4.14.1 Repair-to-Failure Process......Page 158
4.14.2 Repair Failure: Repair Process......Page 162
4.14.3 Failure-to-Repair Process......Page 165
4.14.4 Combined Reliability......Page 166
4.15.1 Preventive Maintenance......Page 168
4.15.2 Corrective Maintenance......Page 169
4.16 Reliability-Centered Maintenance......Page 172
4.17 Security and Reliability-Centered Maintenance......Page 173
4.18.2 Circuit Breakers......Page 174
4.18.4 Substation Equipment......Page 175
4.19.1 Example 1......Page 176
4.19.2 Example 2......Page 178
4.19.3 Example 3......Page 179
4.19.4 Example 4......Page 180
4.20 Summary......Page 181
5.1 Introduction......Page 185
5.2 Demand-Side Management......Page 186
5.2.1 Modeling Challenges and Methodology for Demand-Side Management......Page 187
5.3 Voltage/VAr Control......Page 188
5.3.2 Evaluation of Methods Used for Voltage/VAr Control......Page 189
5.3.4 Formulation of Voltage/VAr......Page 190
5.3.5 System Operating Constraints......Page 191
5.4 Fault Detection (Distribution Automation Function)......Page 192
5.4.2 Modeling of Faults/Classification......Page 193
5.5 Trouble Calls......Page 194
5.6.1 Evaluation of Methods......Page 196
5.6.2 Optimization Formulation......Page 197
5.6.3 Optimization Constraints......Page 198
5.7 Reconfiguration of Distribution Systems......Page 199
5.7.2 Formulation of Modeling of Reconfiguration......Page 200
5.8.1 Techniques for Modeling Harmonics in Power-Quality- Assessment Methodology......Page 205
5.8.2 New Approaches of Power Quality......Page 207
5.9.1 Objectives......Page 208
5.9.2 Constraints......Page 209
5.9.3 Classical Solution......Page 210
5.9.4 Linear Programming......Page 212
5.9.5 Mixed-Integer Programming......Page 213
5.9.6 Interior-Point Linear Programming......Page 215
5.9.7 Sequential Quadratic Programming......Page 218
5.10.1 Example 1......Page 220
5.11 Summary......Page 221
6.1 Introduction......Page 225
6.2 Distribution Automation Function......Page 226
6.3.1 Expert System Techniques......Page 227
6.3.2 Artificial Neural Networks......Page 229
6.3.3 Fuzzy Logic......Page 230
6.3.4 Genetic Algorithms (GA)......Page 232
6.4.1 DSM and AI......Page 233
6.5 Voltage/VAr Control......Page 235
6.6 Network Reconfiguration via AI......Page 236
6.7 Fault Detection, Classification, and Location in Distribution Systems......Page 237
6.8 Summary......Page 238
7.2 Distributed Generation......Page 243
7.3 Working Definition and Classification of Renewable Energy......Page 245
7.4.1 Solar......Page 246
7.4.2 Wind Turbine Systems......Page 252
7.4.3 Biomass-Bioenergy......Page 255
7.4.4 Small and Micro Hydropower......Page 256
7.5.1 Fuel Cell......Page 257
7.5.2 Ocean Energy......Page 261
7.5.4 Microturbine and Sterling Engine......Page 262
7.6 Distributed Generation Concepts and Benefits......Page 264
7.6.3 DG Benefits......Page 265
7.7.1 Example 1......Page 268
7.7.2 Example 2......Page 269
7.7.3 Example 3......Page 271
7.7.4 Example 4......Page 272
7.7.5 Example 5......Page 273
7.7.6 Example 6......Page 274
7.8 Summary......Page 275
8.1.1 DMS and EMS......Page 279
8.2 Functions of EMS......Page 280
8.3 SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition)......Page 281
8.5 Distribution Management System (DMS)......Page 283
8.5.2 SCADA System Functions for DMS......Page 284
8.5.4 Substation and Feeder SCADA......Page 285
8.5.5 Feeder Automation......Page 287
8.5.8 Geographic Information System (GIS)......Page 289
8.6 Automatic Meter Reading (AMR)......Page 290
8.6.2 Special Features and Benefits of AMR......Page 291
8.7 Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) in Distribution Systems......Page 292
8.7.2 Function/Payback Correlation......Page 293
8.8 Summary......Page 294
9.1.1 What is Telecommunication?......Page 297
9.3 Data Communication in Power System Distribution Network......Page 298
9.4 Signal Representation......Page 299
9.4.1 Communication Technology for Signal Description......Page 300
9.5.1 Copper Circuit......Page 301
9.5.4 Fiber Optics......Page 302
9.5.6 Cellular Transmission......Page 303
9.6.1 Amplitude Modulation (AM)......Page 304
9.6.2 Frequency Modulation (FM)......Page 305
9.6.4 Digital Modulation......Page 307
9.7.1 Local Area Network......Page 310
9.7.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)......Page 313
9.7.3 Wide Area Network (WAN)......Page 314
9.8 Frame-Relay Communications......Page 315
9.8.1 Frame-Relay Standardization......Page 316
9.8.4 Frame-Relay Handling of Congestion Error......Page 317
9.8.5 Frame-Relay Network Implementation......Page 318
9.8.6 Frame-Relay Frame Formats......Page 319
9.9 Communication Standards Overview......Page 321
9.9.2 Suite of Standards......Page 322
9.10 OSI Model......Page 324
9.10.1 Description of OSI Model......Page 325
9.10.2 Message Handling......Page 327
9.11 Distribution Network Protocol (DNP3)......Page 328
9.12.1 Overview and Application......Page 329
9.13.2 PLC Architecture......Page 331
9.13.5 Current Trends and Applications......Page 334
9.14.1 Vulnerabilities, Threats, and Risks......Page 336
9.14.2 Security Architecture Elements in ITU-T X.805......Page 337
9.14.4 Authentication......Page 338
9.14.8 Security Framework Requirements......Page 339
9.14.9 Information Security Goals......Page 340
9.15.1 Example 1......Page 341
9.16 Summary......Page 342
10.1 Challenges to Distribution Systems for a Competitive Power Utility Environment......Page 345
10.4 Communication Advances......Page 346
10.7 Pricing and Billing......Page 347
Glossary......Page 349
References......Page 359
Index......Page 375