Electric Energy Systems: Analysis and Operation

Electric Energy Systems: Analysis and Operation......Page 4
Contents......Page 7
Foreword......Page 9
Editors......Page 12
Contributors......Page 14
Appendix C: Dynamic Models of Electric Machines......Page 0
7365ch1.pdf......Page 16
1.1.1 THE ENERGY CHALLENGES IN MODERN TIMES......Page 17
1.1.3 ELECTRICAL ENERGY SYSTEMS: THE BIGGEST INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM CREATED BY HUMANKIND......Page 18
1.1.4.1 Technological Aspects......Page 19
1.1.4.2 Organizational Aspects......Page 21
1.1.5 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT......Page 22
1.2.1 ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM STRUCTURE......Page 24
1.2.2.1 Demand Growth......Page 25
1.2.2.2 Demand Profiles......Page 28
1.2.2.3 Service Quality......Page 30
1.2.3.1 Different Generation Technologies......Page 31
1.2.3.2 The Why’s and Wherefore’s of a Generation Mix......Page 35
1.2.4 TRANSMISSION......Page 36
1.2.4.1 Power Lines......Page 37
1.2.4.2 Substations......Page 38
1.2.6 CONTROL AND PROTECTION......Page 40
1.3.2 EXPANSION AND OPERATION IN THE TRADITIONAL CONTEXT......Page 42
1.3.2.1 Long Term......Page 43
1.3.2.2 Medium Term......Page 44
1.3.2.3 Short Term......Page 45
1.3.3 EXPANSION AND OPERATION IN THE NEW REGULATORY CONTEXT......Page 46
1.3.3.2 Medium Term......Page 47
1.4.1 TRADITIONAL REGULATION AND REGULATION OF COMPETITIVE MARKETS......Page 48
1.4.2.2 Fundamentals......Page 49
1.4.3 NATURE OF ELECTRIC ACTIVITIES......Page 50
1.4.3.2 Generation Activities......Page 51
1.4.3.3 Network Activities......Page 52
1.4.3.4 Transmission......Page 53
1.4.3.5 Distribution......Page 54
Transactions in the Wholesale Market Context......Page 56
Transactions in the Context of the Retail Market......Page 57
Market Operation......Page 58
1.4.4.1 Transition to Competition......Page 59
1.4.4.5 Security of Supply in Generation......Page 60
1.4.5 THE TRENDS IN REGULATION: INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES......Page 61
1.5 MODELING REQUIREMENTS OF MODERN ELECTRIC ENERGY SYSTEMS......Page 62
1.6 FUTURE CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS......Page 64
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING......Page 65
7365ch2.pdf......Page 66
2.2.2 CHOOSING AND CHANGING THE BASE......Page 67
2.3.1 ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS......Page 70
2.3.1.1 Line Resistance R\'......Page 73
2.3.1.3 Line Inductance L\'......Page 74
2.3.1.4 Line Capacitance C\'......Page 76
2.3.3 SINUSOIDAL STEADY-STATE LINE MODELS......Page 78
2.3.4 ELECTRICAL BEHAVIOR OF TRANSMISSION LINES......Page 81
2.4.1 SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMER......Page 84
2.4.2 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER......Page 86
2.4.3 THREE-WINDING TRANSFORMERS......Page 89
2.4.4.1 Voltage-Magnitude Regulating Transformers......Page 91
2.4.4.2 Phase-Angle Regulating Transformer......Page 92
2.5.1 ROUND-ROTOR SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE......Page 93
2.5.2 WORKING CONDITIONS OF THE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE......Page 98
2.5.3 SALIENT-POLE ROTOR SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR......Page 100
2.6 THE INDUCTION MACHINE......Page 102
2.7 LOADS......Page 104
2.7.1 STEADY-STATE MODELS......Page 105
2.7.3 PREDICTIVE MODELS......Page 106
REFERENCES......Page 108
7365ch3.pdf......Page 110
3.2 NETWORK MODELING......Page 111
3.3 PROBLEM FORMULATION......Page 112
3.4.1 GAUSS–SEIDEL METHOD......Page 116
3.5 NEWTON–RAPHSON METHOD......Page 118
3.5.1 POLAR FORMULATION......Page 119
3.5.2 RECTANGULAR FORMULATION......Page 122
3.6 FAST DECOUPLED LOAD FLOW......Page 123
3.7 INCLUSION OF REGULATING DEVICES AND ASSOCIATED LIMITS......Page 126
3.7.1 SHUNT COMPENSATORS......Page 127
3.7.2 REGULATING TRANSFORMERS......Page 129
3.7.3 SERIES COMPENSATORS......Page 130
3.8.1 DC LOAD FLOW......Page 132
3.8.2 RADIAL DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS......Page 134
3.9 LARGE-SCALE SYSTEMS......Page 135
REFERENCES......Page 140
7365ch4.pdf......Page 142
4.2 PROBLEM FORMULATION......Page 144
4.3 NETWORK AND MEASUREMENT MODEL......Page 145
4.4 SOLUTION THROUGH THE NORMAL EQUATIONS......Page 148
4.5 FAST DECOUPLED ESTIMATOR......Page 151
4.6 OBSERVABILITY ANALYSIS......Page 153
4.6.1 NUMERICAL OBSERVABILITY ANALYSIS......Page 154
4.7 ALTERNATIVE SOLUTION TECHNIQUES......Page 157
4.7.1 ORTHOGONAL FACTORIZATION......Page 159
4.7.2 EQUALITY-CONSTRAINED SOLUTION......Page 160
4.7.3 HACHTEL’S MATRIX-BASED SOLUTION......Page 161
4.8 BAD DATA DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION......Page 162
4.8.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MEASUREMENTS......Page 163
4.8.3.1 X2 Test for Detecting Bad Data......Page 164
4.8.4.1 Largest Normalized Residual (rN)Test......Page 165
4.8.4.2.2 Multiple Bad Data......Page 166
4.9 NONQUADRATIC STATE ESTIMATORS......Page 167
4.10.1 PARAMETER ESTIMATION......Page 170
4.10.1.1 Sensitivity-Based Parameter Estimation......Page 171
4.10.1.2 State-Augmentation Parameter Estimation......Page 172
4.10.2 TRANSFORMER TAP ESTIMATION......Page 173
4.10.3 TOPOLOGY ERRORS......Page 174
REFERENCES......Page 176
7365ch5.pdf......Page 180
5.2.1 CLASSIC ECONOMIC DISPATCH......Page 181
5.2.2 BASIC ECONOMIC DISPATCH......Page 182
5.2.3 ECONOMIC DISPATCH WITH ELASTIC DEMAND......Page 185
5.2.4 ECONOMIC DISPATCH WITH GENERATION LIMITS......Page 187
5.2.5 ECONOMIC DISPATCH WITH LOSSES......Page 189
5.2.6 NETWORK CONSTRAINED ECONOMIC DISPATCH......Page 195
5.2.7 OPTIMAL POWER FLOW......Page 196
5.3 UNIT COMMITMENT......Page 198
5.4.1 FUNDAMENTALS......Page 202
5.5 MARKET-CLEARING PROCEDURES......Page 203
5.5.1 SINGLE-PERIOD AUCTION......Page 204
5.5.2 MULTIPERIOD AUCTION......Page 208
5.5.3 TRANSMISSION-CONSTRAINED MULTIPERIOD AUCTION......Page 212
5.6.1 PRICE-TAKER PRODUCER......Page 216
5.6.2 PRICE-MAKER PRODUCER......Page 221
5.7 CONSUMER AND RETAILER VIEWPOINTS......Page 222
REFERENCES......Page 224
7365ch6.pdf......Page 226
6.2 POWER SYSTEM STATES......Page 227
6.3 SECURITY ASSESSMENT: CONTINGENCY ANALYSIS......Page 229
6.3.1 CONTINGENCY ANALYSIS BASED ON DISTRIBUTION FACTORS......Page 232
6.3.2 CONTINGENCY ANALYSIS BASED ON LOAD FLOWS......Page 239
6.4.1 OPF PROBLEM FORMULATION......Page 241
6.5.1 EMERGENCY STATE......Page 246
6.5.1.1 Overload Correction......Page 247
6.5.1.2 Voltage Correction......Page 251
6.5.2 ALERT STATE......Page 255
6.5.3 SECURE STATE......Page 260
6.6 TRANSMISSION NETWORK OPEN ACCESS......Page 261
6.6.1 CONGESTION MANAGEMENT......Page 262
6.6.1.2 Nodal Spot-Pricing Congestion Management......Page 264
6.6.1.3 Transaction-Based Congestion Management......Page 269
6.6.2 TRANSMISSION TARIFFS......Page 271
6.6.4.1 Transmission Losses Evaluation......Page 272
6.6.4.2 Loss Cost Distribution......Page 274
6.6.4.3 The Problem with Mutual Terms in PL......Page 275
6.6.5.2 Power Reserve Services......Page 276
6.6.5.3 Reactive Power Services......Page 277
REFERENCES......Page 278
7365ch7.pdf......Page 280
7.2 UNBALANCED NETWORKS: SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS......Page 282
7.2.1 SEQUENCE NETWORKS......Page 283
7.2.2 COMPLEX POWER IN SEQUENCE COMPONENTS......Page 284
7.3 TRANSMISSION LINES......Page 286
7.3.1 GEOMETRIC IMPEDANCES......Page 287
7.3.3 GROUND RETURN IMPEDANCES......Page 288
7.3.4 INTERNAL IMPEDANCES......Page 289
7.3.5 GROUND WIRES REDUCTION......Page 290
7.3.6 BUNDLE CONDUCTORS REDUCTION......Page 291
7.3.7 DOUBLE-CIRCUIT TRANSMISSION LINES......Page 293
7.3.8 LONG-LINE EFFECTS......Page 294
7.3.9 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS AND SEQUENCE DOMAIN PARAMETERS......Page 295
7.4.1 THREE-PHASE MODELING OF TWO-WINDING TRANSFORMERS......Page 297
7.4.2 SEQUENCE GRIDS OF TRANSFORMERS......Page 299
7.4.3 TRANSFORMER NONLINEARITIES......Page 301
7.5 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES......Page 303
7.6 POWER SYSTEM LOADS AND FILTERS......Page 305
7.6.1 HARMONIC FILTERS......Page 307
7.6.1.2 Single-Tuned First-Order Filter......Page 308
7.6.1.3 High-Pass Second-Order Filters......Page 309
7.7 POWER ELECTRONIC CONVERTERS AND CONTROLLERS......Page 310
7.7.1 CONVENTIONAL CONVERTERS......Page 311
7.7.2 PWM CONVERTERS......Page 312
7.7.2.1 PWM Control......Page 314
7.7.2.2 Principles of Operation of the VSC......Page 315
REFERENCES......Page 316
7365ch8.pdf......Page 318
8.1 PURPOSE AND ASSUMPTIONS OF FAULT ANALYSIS......Page 319
8.1.1 RELATIONS BETWEEN STEADY-STATE AND TRANSIENT SHORT-CIRCUIT CONDITIONS......Page 320
8.2.1 MODELING OF LINES......Page 324
8.2.3 MODELING OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS......Page 325
8.3 THE SEQUENCE MATRICES......Page 326
8.3.1 CONSTRUCTION OF SEQUENCE NODAL ADMITTANCE MATRICES USING THE PRIMITIVE Y-NODE CONCEPT......Page 330
8.4 SOLID FAULTS......Page 331
8.4.1 FAULT ANALYSIS METHOD BY USING NODAL ANALYSIS......Page 332
8.4.2 SOLID THREE-PHASE FAULTS (3Phi)......Page 334
8.4.3 SINGLE LINE TO GROUND FAULTS......Page 335
8.4.4 LINE TO LINE AND DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND FAULTS......Page 337
8.5 GENERALIZED THEVENIN EQUIVALENTS......Page 338
8.5.1 PHASE-DOMAIN FAULT ANALYSIS......Page 339
8.5.2 APPLICATION: FAULTS THROUGH IMPEDANCES......Page 340
8.5.3 APPLICATION: FAULT ALONG A LINE......Page 342
8.6 NEED FOR A PROTECTION SYSTEM......Page 344
8.7.1.3 Speed......Page 345
8.7.1.5 Economy and Simplicity......Page 346
8.7.2.2 Back-Up Relaying......Page 347
8.7.3.2 Instrument Transformers for Protection......Page 348
8.7.3.3 Protection Relay......Page 349
8.7.3.4 Automatic Circuit Breaker......Page 350
8.7.4 PROTECTIVE FUNCTIONS......Page 351
8.8 OVERCURRENT PROTECTION......Page 352
8.8.1 RADIAL NETWORKS......Page 354
8.8.2 MESHED NETWORKS......Page 356
8.9 DISTANCE PROTECTION......Page 357
8.10 DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION......Page 364
8.10.1 TRANSFORMER DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION......Page 365
8.10.2 BUSBAR DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION......Page 366
8.11 OTHER PROTECTION RELAYS......Page 367
REFERENCES......Page 368
7365ch9.pdf......Page 370
9.1.1.1 Europe......Page 371
9.1.1.2 North America......Page 372
9.1.2 CONTROL AS ANCILLARY SERVICE......Page 374
9.2 CONTROL IN POWER SYSTEMS......Page 375
9.3.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 377
9.3.1.1 Control Elements and Structure......Page 378
9.3.2 PRIMARY CONTROL......Page 379
9.3.2.2 Turbine-Generator System......Page 380
9.3.2.4 Electrical Generator......Page 382
9.3.2.5 Primary Regulator Models......Page 383
9.3.2.6 Power System Response......Page 385
9.3.3 INTERTIE AND FREQUENCY SECONDARY CONTROL......Page 389
9.3.3.1 Participation Strategies......Page 392
9.3.3.2 Multiarea Systems......Page 393
9.3.3.3 Elastic Interconnection......Page 396
9.3.3.4 Rigid Interconnection......Page 398
9.3.3.5 Multiarea Control......Page 399
9.4.1.1 Voltage and Reactive Power......Page 400
9.4.2 PRIMARY VOLTAGE CONTROL......Page 401
9.4.2.1 Synchronous Machine AVR......Page 402
9.4.2.1.2 DC Excitation Systems......Page 403
9.4.2.1.3 AC Excitation Systems......Page 404
9.4.2.2 Reactive Shunt Devices......Page 405
9.4.2.3 Transformer Tap-Changer Control......Page 406
9.4.2.4.1 SVC......Page 407
9.4.2.4.2 STATCOM......Page 408
9.4.3 SECONDARY VOLTAGE CONTROL......Page 409
REFERENCES......Page 413
7365ch10.pdf......Page 415
10.1.2 VOLTAGE STABILITY......Page 417
10.1.4 SYSTEM MODELING......Page 418
10.2.1 LARGE-DISTURBANCE STABILITY......Page 420
10.2.1.1 Equal Area Criterion......Page 421
10.2.1.2 Time-Domain Analysis of a Single-Machine-Infinite-Bus System......Page 431
10.2.1.3 Time-Domain Simulation of a Multi-Machine System......Page 434
10.2.1.4 Effects of Modeling Detail on Large-Disturbance Stability......Page 440
10.2.2 SMALL-DISTURBANCE STABILITY......Page 442
10.2.2.1 Single-Machine-Infinite-Bus System......Page 443
10.2.2.2 Multi-Machine System......Page 446
10.2.2.3 Effects of Modeling Detail on Small-Disturbance Stability......Page 450
10.2.2.4 Undamped Oscillations......Page 451
10.2.3.2 Improvement of Small-Disturbance Stability......Page 453
10.3.1 VOLTAGE COLLAPSE AND MAXIMUM LOADABILITY......Page 455
10.3.2.1 Continuation Power Flows......Page 461
10.3.2.2 Direct Methods......Page 464
10.3.3 COUNTERMEASURES......Page 466
10.4 FREQUENCY STABILITY......Page 470
REFERENCES......Page 473
7365ch11.pdf......Page 475
11.2.1 THE NEED FOR THREE-PHASE POWER FLOW STUDIES......Page 476
11.2.1.2 Formulation Based on Current Residuals......Page 477
11.2.2.1 PQ Buses......Page 478
11.2.2.2 PV Buses......Page 479
11.2.3 NEWTON–RAPHSON SOLUTION......Page 480
11.2.4 CONSTANT POWER COMPONENTS......Page 482
11.2.4.2 Grounded Unbalanced Loads......Page 484
11.2.4.3 Ungrounded Unbalanced Loads......Page 485
11.2.4.4 Rotating Loads......Page 487
11.2.6.1 IEEE 14-Bus System......Page 488
11.2.6.2 IEEE 118-Bus System......Page 492
11.2.6.3 Large-Scale System......Page 493
11.2.6.4 Convergence Results......Page 494
11.3.1 DEFINITION......Page 495
11.3.2 ELECTRIC QUANTITIES UNDER HARMONIC CONDITIONS......Page 496
11.3.3.2 Total Demand Distortion......Page 497
11.3.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER SYSTEM HARMONICS......Page 498
11.3.5 NETWORK RESPONSES TO HARMONIC EXCITATIONS......Page 499
11.4 POWER SYSTEM HARMONIC ANALYSIS......Page 501
11.4.1.1.1 Overhead Lines and Underground Cables......Page 502
11.4.1.1.3 Rotating Machines......Page 503
11.4.1.1.4 Aggregate Loads......Page 504
11.4.1.1.5 External System......Page 505
11.4.1.2 Harmonic Sources......Page 506
11.4.1.2.1 Current Source Model......Page 507
11.4.1.2.2 Analytical Device Model......Page 508
11.4.2 NETWORK FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS......Page 509
11.4.3.1 Formulation of Harmonic Power Flow Problem......Page 513
11.4.3.1.1 Current Source Method......Page 514
11.4.3.1.2 Harmonic Iteration Method......Page 517
REFERENCES......Page 521
7365ch12.pdf......Page 523
12.1 TRANSIENTS IN POWER SYSTEMS......Page 524
12.2.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 525
12.2.2 MODELING FOR TRANSIENTS ANALYSIS......Page 526
12.2.3 BASIC CIRCUIT ELEMENTS......Page 527
12.3 ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING TRANSIENTS IN LINEAR SYSTEMS......Page 528
12.4.2 SOLUTION OF THE SINGLE-PHASE LOSSLESS LINE EQUATIONS......Page 531
12.4.3 WAVE PROPAGATION AND REFLECTION......Page 532
12.4.4 THE LATTICE DIAGRAM......Page 536
12.5.2.1 The Laplace Transform......Page 540
12.5.2.2 Laplace-Domain Equivalents of Basic Circuit Elements......Page 543
12.5.2.3 Application of the Laplace Transform......Page 547
12.5.3 NUMERICAL TECHNIQUES......Page 552
12.5.3.1 The Trapezoidal Rule......Page 553
12.5.3.2 Companion Equivalents of Basic Circuit Elements......Page 554
12.5.3.3 Computation of Transients in Linear Networks......Page 557
12.6.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 564
12.6.2.1 Ferroresonance......Page 565
12.6.2.2 Capacitor Bank Switching......Page 569
12.6.2.3 Protection Against Lightning Overvoltages......Page 572
12.7.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 577
12.7.2.1 Self- and Mutual Impedances for Conductors above Lossy Ground......Page 578
12.7.2.2 Self- and Mutual Admittances for Conductors above Ground......Page 582
12.7.3 TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATIONS......Page 586
12.7.3.1 Modal Decomposition......Page 587
12.7.3.2 Modal Transformations......Page 588
12.7.3.3 Line Equations in the Modal Domain......Page 589
12.7.3.4 Decoupled Line Equations......Page 591
12.7.3.5 Symmetrical Components and Other Balanced Transformations......Page 592
12.7.4 MULTIPHASE LINE MODELS IN THE EMTP......Page 594
REFERENCES......Page 595
FURTHER READING......Page 596
7365appa.pdf......Page 597
A.2 FACTORIZATION TREE AND SPARSE VECTORS......Page 600
A.3 SPARSE INVERSE......Page 602
A.4 MODIFICATION OF THE COEFFICIENT MATRIX......Page 603
A.4.1 PARTIAL REFACTORIZATION......Page 604
A.4.2 FACTOR UPDATE......Page 605
A.5 REDUCTIONS AND EQUIVALENTS......Page 606
A.5.2 ADAPTIVE REDUCTION......Page 607
A.5.3 SMALL EQUIVALENTS......Page 608
A.6 COMPENSATION......Page 609
A.7 QR FACTORIZATION AND GIVENS ROTATIONS......Page 611
REFERENCES......Page 613
7365appb.pdf......Page 614
B.1.1 FUNDAMENTALS......Page 615
B.1.2 THE SIMPLEX MECHANISM......Page 617
B.1.3.2 Duality......Page 619
B.2 MIXED-INTEGER LINEAR PROGRAMMING......Page 621
B.2.1 BRANCH AND BOUND......Page 622
B.3.1 UNCONSTRAINED PROBLEMS......Page 623
B.3.2 CONSTRAINED PROBLEMS......Page 624
B.4 UNCONSTRAINED PROBLEMS: SOLUTION METHODS......Page 626
B.4.1 STEEPEST-DESCENT METHOD......Page 627
B.4.2 NEWTON AND QUASI-NEWTON METHODS......Page 629
B.4.3 CONJUGATE DIRECTIONS METHODS......Page 630
B.5 CONSTRAINED PROBLEMS: SOLUTION METHODS......Page 631
B.5.1.1 Penalty Methods......Page 632
B.5.1.2 Barrier Methods......Page 634
B.5.2 AUGMENTED LAGRANGIAN METHODS......Page 635
B.5.3 PRIMAL-DUAL INTERIOR POINT METHODS......Page 636
REFERENCES......Page 639
7365appc.pdf......Page 640
C.3.1 EQUATIONS IN PHASE VARIABLES......Page 642
C.3.2 EQUATIONS IN COMPLEX FORM......Page 643
C.3.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC TORQUE......Page 645
C.3.4 MODEL FOR POWER SYSTEM STABILITY STUDIES......Page 646
C.4.1 EQUATIONS IN d- AND q-AXIS VARIABLES......Page 648
C.4.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC TORQUE......Page 649
C.4.4 MODEL FOR POWER SYSTEM STABILITY STUDIES......Page 650
C.5 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE SIMPLIFIED MODELS......Page 652
C.5.1 SUBTRANSIENT MODEL......Page 653
C.5.2 TRANSIENT MODEL......Page 654
REFERENCES......Page 655
Electric Energy Systems.pdf......Page 1
7365fm.pdf......Page 2