Electric and hybrid vehicles design fundamentals

Cover Page\r......Page 1
Electric and Hybrid Vehicles......Page 2
Copyright......Page 3
Contributors......Page 4
Preface......Page 8
Introduction......Page 10
Analysis......Page 11
Technical and economical criteria......Page 12
Environmental impact criteria......Page 14
Normalization and the general indicator......Page 19
Results and Discussion......Page 20
Acknowledgement......Page 24
References......Page 25
Lifetime Cost of Battery, Fuel-Cell, and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles......Page 27
Introduction......Page 28
Introduction......Page 30
BEV concepts......Page 31
Batteries for BEVs......Page 32
Accessory systems for BEVs......Page 34
Energy use of BEVs......Page 35
External costs of BEVs......Page 36
Discussion of BEV cost estimates......Page 37
Introduction......Page 39
Batteries......Page 40
Engine, exhaust system, and transmission......Page 43
Maintenance and repair costs......Page 45
Energy use of PHEVs......Page 47
External costs of PHEVs......Page 50
Discussion of PHEV cost estimates......Page 52
Overview......Page 53
Fuel-cell system......Page 54
Hydrogen storage system......Page 57
Maintenance and repair costs......Page 58
Energy use of FCEVs......Page 61
Cost of fuel......Page 62
External costs of FCEVs......Page 63
Discussion of FCEV cost estimates......Page 64
Discussion......Page 65
References......Page 66
Introduction......Page 69
Conventional powertrain vehicle model......Page 73
Mild hybrid powertrain vehicle model......Page 74
Full hybrid powertrain vehicle model......Page 75
Initial performance comparisons......Page 77
Optimal velocity profiles using simplified models......Page 78
Online velocity scheduling algorithms......Page 81
Relative fuel saving potential through velocity shaping......Page 85
Hybrid Vehicles with Telematics......Page 88
Formulation of the optimisation problem......Page 90
Conclusions and Future Opportunities......Page 96
References......Page 97
Introduction......Page 99
Method......Page 100
Model structure......Page 101
Primary energy sources and emission factors......Page 102
Personal transportation......Page 103
Impact of CCS and CSP......Page 112
Impact of vehicle technology cost......Page 115
Discussion and Conclusions......Page 116
References......Page 118
Expected Greenhouse Gas Emission Reductions by Battery, Fuel Cell, and Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles......Page 120
Introduction......Page 121
Background and Previous Research......Page 122
Overview of previous research......Page 124
Formation of GHG Emissions from EV Fuel Cycles......Page 125
Combustion or “in-use” emissions......Page 126
Combustion emissions of carbon dioxide from electricity generation......Page 127
Emissions of methane from power plants......Page 128
Emissions of nitrous oxide from power plants......Page 129
Emissions of CO2 and other GHGs from the vehicle life cycle......Page 130
LEM—overview......Page 131
LEM—emission results for BEVs and FCVs......Page 133
GREET model—overview......Page 140
Other EV GHG emission modeling efforts......Page 141
Comparison of GHG emissions estimates for BEVs and FCVs......Page 142
Overview of GHG emissions estimates for PHEVs......Page 144
Review of estimates of GHG emissions from PHEVs......Page 147
Comparison of GHG emissions reductions from PHEVs......Page 151
Comparison of GHG emissions reductions from EV types......Page 152
Scaling up the EV industry—how fast can it be done?......Page 154
Key Uncertainties and Areas for Further Research......Page 155
Key uncertainties in LCA analysis of GHGs from EV fuel cycles......Page 156
Conclusions......Page 157
References......Page 158
Appendix......Page 160
Analysis of Design Tradeoffs for Plug-in Hybrid Vehicles......Page 166
Introduction......Page 167
Model of PHEV design process......Page 168
Review of PHEV design literature......Page 169
Methods for analysis of PHEV design process......Page 170
State of the art for drivetrain architecture......Page 171
Requirements of drivetrain architecture design based on PHEV vehicle-level attributes......Page 172
Constraints on vehicle-level design based on drivetrain architecture attributes......Page 173
Constraints on system-level design based on vehicle architecture attributes......Page 174
Requirements of ESS design based on PHEV vehicle-level attributes......Page 175
Constraints on system-level design based on ESS attributes......Page 176
Requirements of secondary power source design based on PHEV vehicle-level attributes......Page 177
Constraints on vehicle-level design based on secondary power source attributes......Page 178
Constraints on system-level design based on secondary power source attributes......Page 179
State of the art for energy management strategies......Page 180
Requirements of energy management strategy design based on PHEV vehicle-level attributes......Page 181
Constraints on system-level design based on energy management strategy attributes......Page 182
State of the art for vehicle accessory systems......Page 184
Constraints on vehicle-level design based on accessory system attributes......Page 185
ESS charging system......Page 186
State of the art for ESS charging systems......Page 187
Constraints on system-level design based on ESS charging characteristic attributes......Page 188
Case Studies......Page 189
Daimler-Chrysler Sprinter PHEV......Page 192
Concluding Remarks......Page 193
References......Page 194
Introduction......Page 199
Factors Affecting Plug-In Hybrid Fuel Consumption and Emissions......Page 201
SAE J1711 Recommended Practice......Page 202
Methodology......Page 204
Fuel consumption and regulated emission factors......Page 206
CO2 global emissions......Page 209
Impact on the electric grid......Page 211
Conclusions......Page 212
Acknowledgments......Page 214
References......Page 215
Introduction......Page 217
Review of previous results......Page 218
Approach......Page 220
Vehicle simulation model......Page 221
Driving profile database......Page 222
Battery aging model......Page 223
Results......Page 224
Driving profile impact......Page 225
Battery aging with different charging scenarios......Page 226
Acknowledgements......Page 230
References......Page 231
Introduction......Page 232
The Boundary Conditions for Automotive Technology Development......Page 233
Fuel Cell Electric and Battery Electric Vehicles — Two Competing Concepts?......Page 235
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles......Page 237
Extended-Range Electric Vehicles......Page 242
Infrastructure Issues......Page 247
List of Abbreviations\r......Page 249
References......Page 250
Introduction......Page 251
Simulation of Efficient Internal Combustion Vehicle......Page 253
Simulation of Fuel Cell Vehicle......Page 261
Simulation of Battery Vehicle......Page 264
Simulation of Hybrid Vehicles......Page 271
Optimization of Hybrid Configuration......Page 272
Conclusions......Page 275
References......Page 276
Appendix: Performance Measures......Page 277
Introduction......Page 278
Methodology......Page 281
Scope......Page 282
Results and Discussion......Page 283
Concluding Remarks......Page 287
References......Page 288
DOE’s National Fuel Cell Vehicle Learning Demonstration Project — NREL’s Data Analysis Results......Page 290
Approach and Industry Partners......Page 291
Vehicle rollout......Page 292
Process for publishing results......Page 293
Vehicle driving range......Page 294
Fuel cell efficiency......Page 295
Fuel cell durability......Page 296
Factors affecting fuel cell durability......Page 300
Fueling rate comparison between fills for 350 and 700bar......Page 301
On-site production efficiency from natural gas reformation and electrolysis......Page 302
Vehicle greenhouse gas emissions......Page 303
Fuel cell vehicle freeze capability......Page 304
Concluding Remarks......Page 305
References......Page 306
Introduction......Page 307
Energy/Power......Page 308
Cost......Page 309
Battery life......Page 312
Cycle life......Page 313
Calendar life......Page 314
Temperature control......Page 315
Safety......Page 316
Recycling and environmental issues......Page 317
Microhybrids (idling start/stop)......Page 318
Soft hybrids (stop and go)......Page 319
Full hybrids (power assist HEVs)......Page 321
Example of existing HEV battery systems: NiMH batteries......Page 322
Example of incoming HEV battery systems: Li ion batteries......Page 324
Plug-in hybrids......Page 328
Li ion batteries for PHEVs......Page 330
Electric vehicles......Page 331
Examples of recent EV battery systems: Li ion......Page 336
Examples of recent EV battery systems: lithium metal polymer......Page 339
Examples of recent EV battery systems: sodium/nickel chloride (ZEBRA)......Page 340
Summary of the Different Li ion Chemistries Existing at Present, and to be Used in HEVs, PHEVs, or EVs......Page 342
The Future......Page 344
References......Page 346
Battery Environmental Analysis......Page 348
Methodology......Page 349
Selection of impact assessment method......Page 350
Weighting......Page 352
Model......Page 353
Composition......Page 354
Recycling......Page 356
Reliability of the Results......Page 357
Assembly and recycling of the battery......Page 358
Battery technical characteristics......Page 359
FU constant battery energy content and constant lifetime range of the vehicle......Page 360
FU constant battery mass and constant lifetime range of the vehicle......Page 361
FU constant range and constant lifetime distance covered by the vehicle......Page 362
Impact of the different stages......Page 363
Boundary conditions......Page 365
Sensitivity analysis for different scenarios......Page 366
Sensitivity analysis for electricity production......Page 367
Conclusion of the sensitivity analysis......Page 369
Impact of the application......Page 370
General conclusion of the quantitative analysis......Page 371
Nickel-Zinc......Page 372
Zinc-air......Page 373
Discussion of the qualitative analysis......Page 374
References......Page 375
Introduction......Page 376
Vehicle usage pattern analysis......Page 379
Representative usage schedule......Page 381
Laboratory Battery Tests......Page 383
Assessing battery performance......Page 385
Understanding battery degradation mechanisms......Page 386
SOC determination by relaxed cell voltage......Page 388
Measuring polarization resistance......Page 390
Mapping the degradation......Page 392
Characterize cell-to-cell variations......Page 394
Single Cell and Battery Pack Modeling......Page 395
Single-cell modeling......Page 396
Accommodating cell-to-cell variations......Page 398
Battery pack modeling......Page 399
Vehicle Drivetrain Platform Modeling......Page 400
Concluding Remarks......Page 401
References......Page 402
Introduction......Page 405
Basic PHEV Design Concepts......Page 408
PHEV Battery Goals......Page 410
Power......Page 412
Life......Page 413
Safety......Page 415
Summary of trade-offs......Page 416
Battery Technologies......Page 417
Nickel-metal hydride......Page 418
Lithium-ion......Page 419
Li-Ion Battery Prospects......Page 420
What PHEV Could Be Made With Near-Term Battery Technologies?......Page 423
Discussion and Conclusion......Page 425
References......Page 426
Introduction......Page 428
Defining the Maximum Pulse-Power Capability......Page 430
Defining a linear pulse-power capability......Page 432
Applications of the simple model......Page 435
A Combined Model for Battery Size and Capacity Use......Page 440
Cell chemistries studied......Page 441
Cell-sandwich design and performance......Page 442
Battery model......Page 446
Vehicle model......Page 447
Operating configurations and driving cycle......Page 448
Results for HEV operation......Page 450
Results for PHEV operation......Page 452
Pulse-power capability in a flat-potential system......Page 456
Conclusions......Page 457
Acknowledgements......Page 458
References......Page 460
Safety of Lithium-Ion Batteries for Hybrid Electric Vehicles......Page 461
Introduction......Page 462
Li-ion Cell Failures......Page 463
External short circuit......Page 468
Internal short circuit......Page 469
Metallic contaminants......Page 470
Cell charging algorithm......Page 471
Cell overcharge......Page 472
Low-temperature charging......Page 473
Typical Safety Circuits......Page 474
HEV Battery Safety Standards......Page 477
System Specific Safety Evaluation......Page 480
Cell manufacturing defects......Page 481
Design defects......Page 483
Operating temperature......Page 484
System-based abuse testing......Page 485
Arcing......Page 486
Summary......Page 487
References......Page 488
Management of Batteries for Electric Traction Vehicles......Page 490
Application Introduction......Page 491
Electric motorcycles......Page 492
Fuel-cell electric vehicle......Page 493
Microhybrid or start–stop hybrid......Page 494
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle......Page 495
Battery Management Systems......Page 496
Monitoring......Page 497
Measuring......Page 498
Calculating......Page 499
Control......Page 500
Balancing......Page 501
Centralized architecture......Page 502
Leakage detection or isolation breakdown detection......Page 503
Current interruption fail-safe switches......Page 504
System voltage and current maximums......Page 505
Microhybrid (start–stop)......Page 506
BEV, mild or full hybrid, or PHEV......Page 508
Conclusion......Page 510
References......Page 511
Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure......Page 513
Battery charging......Page 514
Background......Page 515
Charging time and “charging speed”......Page 516
“Semi-fast” charging......Page 517
Overview of power levels......Page 519
Mode 1 charging......Page 520
Mode 2 charging......Page 521
Control pilot conductor......Page 522
Control pilot alternatives......Page 523
Control pilot communication......Page 524
Off-board chargers (Mode 4)......Page 525
Communication for grid management......Page 526
Connection cases......Page 529
Standard accessories......Page 531
New standardization proposals......Page 532
“Fast” charging......Page 534
Introduction......Page 535
Automatic connection......Page 536
Conclusions......Page 537
References......Page 538
Market Prospects of Electric Passenger Vehicles......Page 540
Introduction......Page 541
Batteries and fuel cells......Page 543
General definitions......Page 544
Vehicle energy consumption......Page 546
Relevant Stakeholders and Outline of Calculation Model......Page 549
Customers......Page 550
Vehicle manufacturers......Page 553
Politics......Page 554
Verification of model results......Page 555
Scenario Calculations......Page 556
Assumptions of input parameters......Page 557
Results: new vehicle fleet......Page 558
Scenario 2 – “climate protection”......Page 561
Results: new vehicle fleet......Page 562
Sensitivities......Page 565
Scenario 1b – “reduced efforts for climate protection and lower costs for emission after-treatment of diesel vehicles”......Page 566
Comparison of results......Page 568
Conclusions and Future Opportunities......Page 570
Nomenclature\r......Page 571
References......Page 572
Automakers’ Powertrain Options for Hybrid and Electric Vehicles......Page 573
Introduction......Page 574
Hybrid Electric Vehicles......Page 575
Micro hybrids......Page 576
Volvo DRIVe......Page 577
Honda integrated motor assist......Page 578
Mercedes S-Class (Mild hybrid)......Page 581
BMW active hybrid (Mild hybrid)......Page 582
Toyota hybrid synergy drive and Lexus hybrid synergy drive......Page 584
BMW active hybrid (Full hybrid)......Page 588
Mercedes M-Class Hybrid......Page 590
Porsche Cayenne Hybrid......Page 591
Volkswagen full hybrid......Page 592
PSA Peugeot Citroën Hybrid......Page 593
Plug-in hybrids (PHEVs)......Page 594
Toyota Prius Plug-in......Page 595
General motors E-Flex system......Page 596
MP3 Hybrid......Page 599
Battery Electric Vehicles......Page 600
Renault Z.E.......Page 601
Twizy Z.E. concept......Page 602
Fluence Z.E. Concept......Page 603
Nissan Leaf......Page 604
Smart Fortwo Electric Drive......Page 605
Mitsubishi i-MiEV......Page 606
PSA Peugeot Citroën–Venturi Automobiles agreement......Page 607
Audi E-tron......Page 610
BMW Concept ActiveE–1-Series Electric......Page 611
MINI E......Page 613
Volvo C30 BEV......Page 614
Ape Calessino 2009 Electric Lithium......Page 615
Rinspeed......Page 616
Honda FCX Clarity......Page 618
Mercedes-Benz B-Class F-Cell......Page 620
Nissan X-Trail......Page 622
Host......Page 623
General motors’ Voltec technology......Page 627
Conclusions......Page 629
Incentives for Hybrid and Electric Vehicles......Page 631
Buses and Trucks......Page 632
Individual Mobility (Scooters and Bikes)......Page 633
Recharging Networks......Page 634
HEV/EV Market......Page 637
Index\r......Page 638