Electric Aircraft Dynamics: A Systems Engineering Approach

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Preface
Acronyms
Chapter 1 Introduction
	1.1 Introduction to Electric Aircraft
	1.2 The Systems Engineering Method
	1.3 Hybrid and All-Electric Aircraft: Examples
	1.4 Battery Power
	1.5 Range and Endurance of Electric Aircraft
	1.6 Propulsion Motors
	1.7 Propellers, Aeroacoustics and Low Noise Design
	1.8 Electric Propulsion Issues
	1.9 Key Technology Limitations
	1.10 Future Work
	Chapter Summary
	References
Chapter 2 Electric Motors
	2.1 Introduction to DC Motors
		2.1.1 DC Motor Principles
		2.1.2 DC Motor Characteristics
		2.1.3 Classification of DC Motors
		2.1.4 Dynamic Modeling of DC Motors
		2.1.5 Control of DC Motors
	2.2 Introduction to AC Motors
		2.2.1 Synchronous Motors
		2.2.2 Three-Phase Motors
		2.2.3 Loading and Back-EMF in Synchronous Motors
		2.2.4 Characteristics of AC Motors
		2.2.5 Induction Motors
		2.2.6 Squirrel-Cage Rotor
		2.2.7 Controlling AC Motors
	2.3 Reluctance Motors: Reluctance Principle
		2.3.1 Types of Construction
		2.3.2 Reluctance Torque
		2.3.3 Switched Reluctance Motor
		2.3.4 Operation of a Switched Reluctance Motor
	2.4 Brushless DC Motors
		2.4.1 Brushless or Electronic Commutation
		2.4.2 Dynamic Modeling
		2.4.3 Switching and Commutation
	Chapter Summary
	References
Chapter 3 Batteries
	3.1 Introduction to Batteries
		3.1.1 Battery Structure and Specifications
		3.1.2 Rechargeable Batteries
		3.1.3 Charge, Capacity and Discharge Features
		3.1.4 Temperature Effects and Capacity Fading
	3.2 Battery Dynamic Modeling: Physical, Empirical, Circuit and Hybrid Models
		3.2.1 Battery SOC Estimation
	3.3 Types and Characteristics of Batteries
		3.3.1 Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) Batteries
		3.3.2 Gel Polymer Electrolytes
		3.3.3 Lithium–Sulfur (Li–S) Batteries
		3.3.4 Metal-Air and Li-Air Batteries
	3.4 Applications
		3.4.1 Batteries for Electric Aircraft
	Chapter Summary
	References
Chapter 4 Permanent Magnet Motors and Halbach Arrays
	4.1 Motors for All-Electric Propulsion
	4.2 High Torque Permanent Magnet Motors
		4.2.1 Rare Earth Elements
		4.2.2 Neodymium Magnets and Samarium–Cobalt Magnets
	4.3 Magnetic and Electromagnetic Effects
		4.3.1 Magnetic Materials on a Microscopic Scale
		4.3.2 Diamagnetism
		4.3.3 Paramagnetism
		4.3.4 Remnant Magnetic Moment
		4.3.5 Ferromagnetism
		4.3.6 Curie Temperature
		4.3.7 Magneto-Striction
		4.3.8 Ferrimagnetism
		4.3.9 The Maximum Energy Product
		4.3.10 Coercivity
		4.3.11 High Temperature Coercivity
		4.3.12 Curie Temperature of NdFeB
		4.3.13 Intrinsic Coercivity
		4.3.14 Intrinsic and Normal Coercivity Compared
		4.3.15 Permanent Magnets with Reduced Rare Earth Elements
	4.4 Halbach Array Motors
		4.4.1 Complex Halbach Arrays
		4.4.2 Ring Type Structures
	4.5 Modeling the Magnetic Field Due to a Halbach Array
	Chapter Summary
	References
Chapter 5 Introduction to Boundary Layer Theory and Drag Reduction
	5.1 Principles of Airfoil and Airframe Design
	5.2 Flow Over an Aerofoil
	5.3 Aerodynamic Drag
	5.4 Boundary Layer Flow
		5.4.1 The Navier–Stokes (NS) Equations
		5.4.2 Viscous Energy Dissipation
		5.4.3 Non-Dimensionalizing and Linearizing the NS Equations
		5.4.4 Analysis in the Boundary Layers
		5.4.5 Boundary Layer Equations
		5.4.6 Vorticity and Stress in a Boundary Layer
		5.4.7 Two-Dimensional Boundary Layer Equations
		5.4.8 The Blasius Solution
		5.4.9 The Displacement, Momentum and Energy Thicknesses
	5.5 Computation of Boundary Layer Velocity Profiles
		5.5.1 The von Karman Method: The Integral Momentum Equation
		5.5.2 Wall Shear Stress, Momentum Thickness, Displacement Thickness and Boundary Layer Thickness for the Blasius Solution
		5.5.3 The Methods of Pohlhausen and Holstein and Bohlen
		5.5.4 Refined Velocity Profiles within the Boundary Layer
		5.5.5 Laminar Boundary Layers: Integral Methods Using Two Equations
		5.5.6 Effect of Suction, Blowing or Porosity
		5.5.7 Reduction of the Equations
		5.5.8 Special Cases
		5.5.9 Thwaites Correlation Technique
	5.6 Transition and Separation
		5.6.1 Walz–Thwaites’ Criterion for Transition/Separation
		5.6.2 The Transitional Boundary Layer
	5.7 Turbulent Boundary Layers
		5.7.1 Predicting the Turbulent Boundary Layer
		5.7.2 The Entrainment Equation Due to Head
		5.7.3 Drela’s Method for a Turbulent Boundary Layer
	5.8 Strategy for Aircraft Drag Reduction
	Chapter Summary
	References
Chapter 6 Electric Aircraft Propeller Design
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Aerofoil Sections: Lift and Drag
	6.3 Momentum Theory
	6.4 Actuator Disk
	6.5 Blade Element Theory
	6.6 Dynamics and Modeling of the Inflow
	6.7 Integrating the Thrust and Torque
	6.8 Blade Element Momentum Theory
		6.8.1 Application to Ducted Propellers
	6.9 Lifting Line Theory
	6.10 Blade Circulation Distribution: Potential Flow-Based Solutions
	6.11 Standard Propeller Features and Design Considerations
	6.12 Propellers for Distributed Propulsion
	Chapter Summary
	References
Chapter 7 High Temperature Superconducting Motors
	7.1 High Temperature Superconductors (HTS)
		7.1.1 The Meissner State and the Meissner Effect
		7.1.2 Features of Superconducting Materials
	7.2 HTS Motors
		7.2.1 HTS DC Motors
		7.2.2 HTS Synchronous and Induction Motors
		7.2.3 Cryostats for HTS Motors
		7.2.4 Control of 3-Phase HTS PMSM
	7.3 Homopolar Motors
		7.3.1 Superconducting Homopolar Motors
	7.4 Design of HTS Motors for Aircraft Propulsion
	Chapter Summary
	References
Chapter 8 Aeroacoustics and Low Noise Design
	8.1 Aeroacoustic Analogies
		8.1.1 Sound Pressure Level
	8.2 Integral Methods of Lighthill, Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings, and Kirchhoff
	8.3 Monopoles, Dipoles and Quadrupoles
		8.3.1 Tonal Characterization of Aeroacoustically Generated Noise
	8.4 Application to Propellers and Motors
		8.4.1 Sources of Airfoil and Propeller Noise
		8.4.2 Hamilton-Standard Procedure for Estimating the Noise Due to Propeller Aerodynamic Loading
	8.5 Theoretical Modeling of the Noise Fields
		8.5.1 Theoretical Modeling of the Propeller Noise Fields
		8.5.2 Farassat’s Formulation of the FW–H Equation
		8.5.3 Formulation of the Far-Field Noise Based on a Rotating Source
		8.5.4 Lilley’s Analogy and Its Application to Ducts
	Chapter Summary
	References
Chapter 9 Principles and Applications of Plasma Actuators
	9.1 Flow Control and Plasma Actuation
	9.2 Passive Methods of Flow Control
		9.2.1 Riblets
		9.2.2 Dimples
		9.2.3 Fences
		9.2.4 Vortex Generators (VGs) and Micro-VGs
		9.2.5 Vortilons
		9.2.6 Winglets
		9.2.7 Cavities
		9.2.8 Gurney Flaps
	9.3 Passive Methods Coupled with Plasma Actuation
	9.4 Reduction of Skin-Friction Drag by Feedback
		9.4.1 Feedback Control of Transition
		9.4.2 Modeling the Flow Due to DBD Plasma Actuators
		9.4.3 Decomposition of Simulated Flow Features
		9.4.4 Application of Wavelet Decomposition and De-Noising
		9.4.5 A Review of Wavelet Decomposition Based on the Wavelet Transform
		9.4.6 Application to the Regulation of Laminar Flow over an Airfoil
	9.5 Control Laws for Active Flow Control
		9.5.1 Integral Equations for the Boundary Layer
		9.5.2 The Inverse Boundary Layer Method: Uniform Solutions
		9.5.3 Uniform and Prescribed Shape Factor
		9.5.4 The Vorticity–Velocity Formulation with Control Flow Inputs
		9.5.5 Active Control of Velocity Profiles
		9.5.6 Hybrid Active Laminar Flow Control with Plasma Actuation
		9.5.7 Application of the Control Laws to a Typical Airfoil
	Chapter Summary
	References
Chapter 10 Photovoltaic Cells
	10.1 History of the Photoelectric Effect
	10.2 Semiconductors: Silicon Photo Diodes
	10.3 Photoconductive Cells
	10.4 The Photovoltaic Effect
		10.4.1 The Photovoltaic Cell: The Solar Cell
		10.4.2 Solar Cell Characteristics
		10.4.3 Modeling the Power Output of a Solar Cell
		10.4.4 Maximum Power Point Tracking
		10.4.5 The Shockley–Queisser Limit
	10.5 Multi-Junction Silicon PV Cells
		10.5.1 Modeling the Power Output of Multi-Junction Cells
	Chapter Summary
	References
Chapter 11 Semiconductors and Power Electronics
	11.1 Semiconductors and Transistors
		11.1.1 Semiconductors and Semiconductor Diodes
		11.1.2 Transistors
	11.2 Power Electronic Devices
		11.2.1 Power Diodes: A Three-Layered Semiconductor Device
		11.2.2 Thyristors and Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
		11.2.3 Controlled Devices: GTO and GTR
		11.2.4 The MOSFET
		11.2.5 The IGBT
		11.2.6 Applications
	Chapter Summary
	References
Chapter 12 Flight Control and Autonomous Operations
	12.1 Introduction to Flight Control
		12.1.1 Range and Endurance of an Electric Aircraft
		12.1.2 Equivalent Air Speed, Gliding Speed and Minimum Power to Climb
	12.2 Flight Path Optimization
		12.2.1 The Optimal Control Method
		12.2.2 Cruise Optimization: Optimal Control Formulation
		12.2.3 Optimization Procedure: Optimum Cruise Velocity, Optimum Trajectory Synthesis
		12.2.4 Modeling with the Peukert Effect
	12.3 Integrated Flight and Propulsion Control
		12.3.1 Model-Based Design of Control Laws for Distributed Propulsion-Based Flight Control
	12.4 Flight Management for Autonomous Operation
		12.4.1 Autonomous Control Systems
		12.4.2 Route Planning
		12.4.3 Mission Planning for Autonomous Operations
		12.4.4 Systems and Control for Autonomy
	12.5 Flight Path Planning
		12.5.1 Path Planning in Three Dimensions Using a Particle Model
		12.5.2 Path Planning in the Horizontal Plane
		12.5.3 Path-Following Control
	Chapter Summary
	References
Index