Educational Psychology: Active Learning Edition

Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Pearson’s Commitment to Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion
Dedication
About the Authors
Preface
Brief Contents
Contents
Special Features
Part I Setting the Stage, Meeting the Players
	Cluster 1 Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology
		Teachers’ Casebook—Becoming a Great Teacher What Would You Do?
		Overview and Objectives
		Learning and Teaching Today
			Inside Three Classrooms
				A Multilingual First Grade
				A Suburban Fifth Grade
				Teaching Math to Students with Learning Disabilities
			Students Today: Dramatic Diversity and Remarkable Technology
			Confidence in Every Context
			High Expectations for Teachers and Students
			Teaching the Whole Child: Social and Emotional Learning
				Research on Social and Emotional Learning
				Paths: an Approach to Social and Emotional Learning
				Living with Social-Emotional Trauma
			Do Teachers Make a Difference?
				Teacher–Student Relationships
				The Cost of Poor Teaching
		What Is Good Teaching?
			Models of Good Teaching
				Danielson’s Framework for Teaching
				Teachingworks
				The Class Model
			Beginning Teachers
		Module 1 Summary
		The Role of Educational Psychology
			Educational Psychology Today
			Is It Just Common Sense?
				Learning Styles
				Answer Based on Research
				Skipping Grades
				Answer Based on Research
				Students in Control
				Answer Based on Research
				Obvious Answers?
			Using Research to Understand and Improve Learning
				Correlation Studies
				Experimental Studies
				Abab Experimental Designs
				Scientifically Based Research and Evidence-based Practices
				Clinical Interviews and Case Studies
				Ethnography
				The Role of Time in Research
				What’s the Evidence? Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research
				Mixed Methods Research
				Teachers as Researchers
		Point/Counterpoint: What Kind of Research Should Guide Education?
			Theories for Teaching
			Supporting Student Learning
		Module 2 Summary
		Key Terms
		Connect and Extend to Licensure
		Teachers’ Casebook—Becoming a Great Teacher: What Would They Do?
	Cluster 2 Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity
		Teachers’ Casebook—Conversations About Race What Would You Do?
		Overview and Objectives
		Education Is Cultural
			What Is Culture?
		Your Cultural and Educational History
			Meet Two Students
			Cultural Intersections and Terminology
				Intersectionality
				Cultural Groups and Terminology
		Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination
			Stereotypes: the Good and the Bad
			From Stereotypes to Prejudice
			Stereotype Threat
			From Prejudice to Discrimination
		Module 3 Summary
		Economic and Social Class Differences
			Social Class and Socioeconomic Status
			Poverty and Social Inequality
			Poverty and Academic Outcomes
				Health, Environment, and Stress
				Low Expectations—Low Academic Self-Concept
				Peer Influences and Resistance Cultures
				Home Environment and Resources
				Summer Setbacks and School Disruptions
				Tracking and Poor Teaching
			Extreme Poverty: Homeless and Highly Mobile Students
		Guidelines: Teaching Students Who Live in Poverty
		Module 4 Summary
		Ethnicity and Race in Teaching and Learning
			Defining Ethnicity and Race
			Ethnic and Racial Identity
				Multidimensional and Flexible Ethnic Identities
				Racial Identity Development
			Ethnic and Racial Differences in School Achievement
			The Legacy of Racial Inequality
				Racism and Discrimination
		Module 5 Summary
		Gender and Sexual Orientation in Teaching and Learning
			Sex and Gender
			Gender Identity
			Gender Roles
			Gender Bias and Sexism in Curriculum and Media
			Gender Bias in Teaching
		Guidelines: Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching
		Point/counterpoint: Should Girls and Boys Be Taught Differently?
			Sexual Orientation
			Discrimination Based on Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation
		Module 6 Summary
		Creating Culturally Welcoming Classrooms
			Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
			Diversity in Learning
				Social Organization
				Cultural Values and Learning Preferences.
				Sociolinguistics
				Cultural Discontinuity
			Lessons for Teachers: Teaching Every Student
				Know Yourself
		Guidelines: Culturally Relevant Teaching
			Know Your Students
			Respect Your Students
			Teach Your Students
		Module 7 Summary
		Key Terms
		Connect and Extend to Licensure
		Teachers’ Casebook—conversations About Race: What Would They Do?
Part II Development: Similarities and Difference
	Cluster 3 Cognitive Development
		Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals What Would You Do?
		Overview and Objectives
		A Definition of Development
			Three Questions Across the Theories
				What Is the Source of Development? Nature Versus Nurture
				What Is the Shape of Development? Continuity Versus Discontinuity
				Timing: Is It Too Late? Critical Versus Sensitive Periods
				Beware of Either/Or
			General Principles of Development
		The Brain and Cognitive Development
			The Developing Brain: Neurons
			The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex
			Brain Development in Childhood and Adolescence
			Putting It All Together: How the Brain Works
				Culture and Brain Plasticity
		Point/counterpoint: Brain-Based Education
			Neuroscience, Learning, and Teaching
				Does Instruction Affect Brain Development?
				The Brain and Learning to Read
				Emotions, Learning, and the Brain
			Lessons for Teachers: General Principles
		Module 8 Summary
		Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
			Influences on Development
			Basic Tendencies in Thinking
				Organization
				Adaptation
				Equilibration
			Four Stages of Cognitive Development
				Infancy: The Sensorimotor Stage
				Early Childhood to the Early Elementary Years: The Preoperational Stage
				Later Elementary to the Middle School Years: The Concrete-operational Stage
		Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships: Helping Families Care for Preoperational Children
		Guidelines: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child
			High School and College: Formal Operations.
			Do We All Reach the Fourth Stage?
		Guidelines: Helping Students Use Formal Operations
			Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory
				The Trouble with Stages
				Underestimating Children’s Abilities
				Cognitive Development and Culture
			Information Processing, Neo-piagetian, and Neuroscience Views of Cognitive Development
		Module 9 Summary
		Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective
			The Social Sources of Individual Thinking
			Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development
				Technical Tools in a Digital Age
				Psychological Tools
			The Roles of Language and Private Speech
				Private Speech: Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s Views Compared
			The Zone of Proximal Development
				Private Speech and the Zone
				The Role of Learning and Development
			Limitations of Vygotsky’s Theory
		Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers
			Piaget: What Can We Learn?
				Understanding and Building on Students’ Thinking
				Activity and Constructing Knowledge
			Vygotsky: What Can We Learn?
				The Role of Adults and Peers
				Assisted Learning
			An Example Curriculum: Tools of the Mind
			Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic Middle”
		Guidelines: Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching
			Cognitive Development: Lessons for Teachers
		Module 10 Summary
		Key Terms
		Connect and Extend to Licensure
		Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals: What Would They Do?
	Cluster 4 The Self, Social, and Moral Development
		Teachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would You Do?
		Overview and Objectives
		Physical Development
			Physical and Motor Development
				Young Children
				Elementary School Years
			Guidelines: Dealing with Physical Differences in the Classroom
				The Adolescent Years
				Early and Later Maturing
			Play, Recess, and Physical Activity
				Cultural Differences in Play
				Exercise and Recess
			Reaching Every Student: Physical Activity and Students with Disabilities
			Challenges in Physical Development
				Obesity
				Body Image and Disordered Eating
		Guidelines: Supporting Positive Body Images in Adolescents
		Module 11 Summary
		Bronfenbrenner: the Social Context for Development
			The Importance of Context and the Bioecological Model
			Families
				Parenting Styles
				Culture and Parenting
				Attachment
			Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships: Connecting with Families
				Divorce
			Guidelines: Helping Children of Divorce
				Peers
					Cliques
					Crowds
					Peer Cultures
					Friendships
					Popularity
					Who Is Likely to Have Problems with Peers?
					Aggression
					Relational Aggression
					Media, Modeling, and Aggression
					Video Games and Aggressive Behavior
				Reaching Every Student: Teacher Support
			Guidelines: Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging Cooperation
				Academic and Personal Caring.
				Supporting Social and Emotional Learning.
				Teachers and Child Abuse
					Mandated Reporting.
					What Can Teachers Do?
		Module 12 Summary
		Identity and Self-Concept
			Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development
				The Preschool Years: Trust, Autonomy, and Initiative
				The Elementary and Middle School Years: Industry Versus Inferiority
			Guidelines: Encouraging Initiative and Industry
				Adolescence: the Search for Identity
				Identity and Technology
				Beyond the School Years
			Guidelines: Supporting Identity Formation
				Racial and Ethnic Pride
				Self-Concept
					The Structure of Self-Concept
					How Self-Concept Develops
					Self-Concept and Achievement
				Sex Differences in the Self-Concept of Academic Competence
				Self-Esteem
			Point/Counterpoint: What Should Schools Do to Encourage Students’ Self-Esteem?
				The Dangers of Perfectionism
		Module 13 Summary
		Understanding Others and Moral Development
			Theory of Mind and Intention
			Moral Development
				Kohlberg’s Theories of Moral Development
				Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory
			Moral Judgments, Social Conventions, and Personal Choices
				Moral Versus Conventional Domains
				Implications for Teachers
			Beyond Reasoning: Haidt’s Social Intuitionist Model of Moral Psychology
			Moral Behavior and the Example of Cheating
				Who Cheats?
				Dealing with Cheating
		Personal/Social Development: Lessons for Teachers
		Module 14 Summary
		Key Terms
		Connect and Extend to Licensure
		Teachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would They Do?
	Cluster 5 Learner Differences and Learning Needs
		Teachers’ Casebook—Including Every Student: What Would You Do?
		Overview and Objectives
		Language and Labeling
			Impairments, Disabilities, and Handicaps
			Person-first/identity-first Language
			Possible Biases in the Application of Labels
		Intelligence
			What Does Intelligence Mean?
				Intelligence: One Ability or Many?
			Another View: Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
				What Are These Intelligences?
				Critics of Multiple Intelligences Theory
				Gardner Responds
			Multiple Intelligences: Lessons for Teachers
			Another View: Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence
			Neuroscience and Intelligence
			Measuring Intelligence
				Binet’s Dilemma
				What Does an Iq Score Mean?
				Group Versus Individual IQ Tests
				The Flynn Effect: Are We Getting Smarter?
			Guidelines: Interpreting IQ Scores
				Intelligence and Achievement.
			Sex Differences in Intelligence and Achievement
				Heredity or Environment?
			Learning to Be Intelligent: Being Smart About IQ
			Emotional Intelligence
				What Is Emotional Intelligence?
		Module 15 Summary
		Creativity: What It Is and Why It Matters
			Assessing Creativity
			Ok, But So What: Why Does Creativity Matter?
			What Are the Sources of Creativity?
				Creativity and Cognition
				Creativity and Diversity
			Creativity in the Classroom
		Guidelines: Applying and Encouraging Creativity
		Learning Styles: Proceed with Caution
			Learning Styles/Preferences
				Cautions About Learning Styles
				Why Are Learing Styles/Preferences So Popular?
			Beyond Either/Or
		Module 16 Summary
		Individual Differences and the Law
			Idea
				Least Restrictive Environment
				Individualized Education Program
				The Rights of Students and Families
		Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships: Productive Conferences
			Section 504 Protections
			Response to Intervention
		Module 17 Summary
		Students with Learning Challenges
			Neuroscience and Learning Challenges
			Students with Specific Learning Disabilities
				Student Characteristics
				Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities
			Students with Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders
				Definitions
				Treating ADHD with Drugs
			Point/Counterpoint: Pills or Skills for Children with ADHD?
				Alternatives/Additions to Drug Treatments
			Lessons for Teachers: Learning Disabilities and ADHD
			Students with Communication Impairments
				Speech Impairments
				Language Disorders
			Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
				Trauma
			Guidelines: Disciplining Students with Emotional Problems
				Death by Suicide
				Substance Use Disorder
				Prevention
				The Stigma of Mental Health Issues
				Students with Intellectual Disabilities
			Guidelines: Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities
				Students with Health and Sensory Impairments
					Cerebral Palsy and Multiple Disabilities
					Seizure Disorders (Epilepsy)
					Other Serious Health Concerns: Asthma, Sickle Cell Disease, and Diabetes
					Students with Visual Impairments
					Students Who are Deaf
				Autism Spectrum Disorders
					Interventions
		Module 18 Summary
		Students Who Are Gifted and Talented
			Who Are These Students?
				What Is the Origin of These Gifts
				What Problems Do Students Who Are Gifted Face?
			Identifying Students Who Are Gifted and Talented
				Recognizing Gifts and Talents
			Teaching Students with Gifts and Talents
				Acceleration
				Methods and Strategies
		Module 19 Summary
		Key Terms
		Connect and Extend to Licensure
		Teachers’ Casebook—Including Every Student: What Would They Do?
	Cluster 6 Language Development, Language Diversity, and Immigrant Education
		Teachers’ Casebook—Communicating and Creating Community in the Classroom What Would You Do?
		Overview and Objectives
		The Development of Language
			What Develops? Language and Cultural Differences
				The Puzzle of Language
			When and How Does Language Develop?
				Sounds and Pronunciation
				Vocabulary and Meaning
				Grammar and Syntax
				Pragmatics: Using Language in Social Situations
				Metalinguistic Awareness
			Emergent Literacy
				Building a Foundation
				When Problems Persist
			Emergent Literacy and Language Diversity
				Languages and Emergent Literacy
				Bilingual Emergent Literacy
		Guidelines: Supporting Language and Promoting Literacy
		Diversity in Language Development
			Dual-Language Development
				Second-Language Learning
				Benefits of Bilingualism
				Language Loss
			Signed Languages
			What Is Involved in Being Bilingual?
			Basic Communication and Academic Language
		Guidelines: Promoting Language Learning
		Dialect Differences in the Classroom
			Dialects
				Dialects and Pronunciations
				Dialects and Teaching
			Genderlects
		Module 20 Summary
		Teaching Immigrant Students and English Learners
			Immigrants and Refugees
			Classrooms Today
			Four Student Profiles
		Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds
			Bilingual Education and English Learners
				Two Approaches to Learning English
			Point/Counterpoint: What Is the Best Way to Teach English Learners?
				Research on Bilingual Education
				Visual Strategies
				Literature Response Groups
				Bilingualism for All: Two-way Immersion
			Sheltered Instruction
			Affective and Emotional/social Considerations
				Dealing with Trauma.
			Working with Families: Using the Tools of the Culture
			Guidelines: Providing Emotional Support and Increasing Self-Esteem for Students Who Are Els
				Funds of Knowledge and Welcome Centers
				Student-Led Conferences
			Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships: Welcoming All Families
		Special Challenges: Students Who Are English Learners with Unique Learning Needs and Gifts
			Students Who Are English Learners with Disabilities
			Reaching Every Student: Recognizing Giftedness in Bilingual Students
		Module 21 Summary
		Key Terms
		Connect and Extend to Licensure
		Teachers’ Casebook—communicating and Creating Community in the Classroom: What Would They Do?
Part III Learning and Motivation
	Cluster 7 Behavioral Views of Learning
		Teachers’ Casebook—Sick of Class: What Would You Do?
		Overview and Objectives
		Understanding Learning
			Ethical Issues
				Goals
				Strategies
			Learning Is Not Always What It Seems
		Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning
		Guidelines: Applying Classical Conditioning
		Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses
			Types of Consequences
				Reinforcement
				Punishment
			Neuroscience of Reinforcement and Punishment
			Reinforcement Schedules
				Extinction
			Antecedents and Behavior Change
				Effective Instruction Delivery
				Cueing
		Module 22 Summary
		Putting It All Together: Applied Behavior Analysis
			Methods for Encouraging Behaviors
				Reinforcing with Teacher Attention
				Selecting Reinforcers: The Premack Principle
			Guidelines: Applying Operant Conditioning—Using Praise Appropriately
				Shaping
			Contingency Contracts, Token Reinforcement, and Group Consequences
				Contingency Contracts.
			Guidelines: Applying Operant Conditioning—Encouraging Positive Behaviors
				Token Reinforcement Systems
				Group Consequences
			Handling Undesirable Behavior
				Negative Reinforcement
				Positive Practice Overcorrection
				Reprimands
				Response Cost
				Social Isolation
				Some Cautions About Punishment
		Guidelines: Applying Operant Conditioning—Using Punishment
		Module 23 Summary
		Current Applications: Functional Behavioral Assessment, Positive Behavior Supports, and Self-Management
			Discovering the “Why”: Functional Behavioral Assessments
			Reaching Every Student: Positive Behavior Supports
			Self-Management
				Goal Setting
				Monitoring and Evaluating Progress
				Self-Reinforcement
		Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships: Applying Operant Conditioning: Student Self-Management
		Challenges and Criticisms
			Beyond Behaviorism: Bandura’s Challenge and Observational Learning
				Enactive and Observational Learning
				Learning and Performance
			Criticisms of Behavioral Methods
			Behavioral Approaches: Lessons for Teachers
		Point/Counterpoint: Should Students Be Rewarded for Learning?
		Module 24 Summary
		Key Terms
		Connect and Extend to Licensure
		Teachers’ Casebook—Sick of Class: What Would They Do?
	Cluster 8 Cognitive Views of Learning
		Teachers’ Casebook—Remembering the Basics: What Would You Do?
		Overview and Objectives
		Elements of the Cognitive Perspective
			The Brain and Cognitive Learning
			The Importance of Knowledge in Cognition
				General and Specific Knowledge
				Declarative, Procedural, and Self-Regulatory Knowledge
		Cognitive Views of Memory
			Sensory Memory
				Capacity, Duration, and Contents of Sensory Memory
				Perception
				The Role of Attention
				Attention and Multitasking
			Point/Counterpoint: What’s Wrong with Multitasking?
				Attention and Teaching.
			Guidelines: Gaining and Maintaining Attention
			Working Memory
				A Model of Working Memory
				The Central Executive
				The Phonological Loop
				The Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad
				The Episodic Buffer
				Capacity of Working Memory
				The Duration and Contents of Working Memory.
			Cognitive Load and Retaining Information in Working Memory
				Two (or Three) Kinds of Cognitive Load
				Cognitive Load: Lessons for Teachers
				Retaining Information in Working Memory
				Levels of Processing Theory
				Forgetting
			Individual Differences in Working Memory
				Developmental Differences
				Individual Differences
			Is Working Memory Really Separate?
		Module 25 Summary
		Long-Term Memory
			Capacity and Duration of Long-Term Memory
			Contents of Long-Term Memory: Explicit (Declarative) Memories
				Propositions and Propositional Networks
				Images
				Two Are Better Than One: Words and Images
				Concepts
				Prototypes, Exemplars, and Theory-Based Categories
				Teaching Concepts
				Schemas
				Episodic Memory
			Guidelines: Interviewing Young Students and Eyewitness Testimony
			Contents of Long-Term Memory: Implicit Memories
			Retrieving Information in Long-Term Memory
				Spreading Activation
				Reconstruction
				Forgetting and Long-Term Memory
			Individual Differences in Long-Term Memory
		Module 26 Summary
		Teaching for Long-Lasting Knowledge: Basic Principles and Applications
			Constructing Declarative Knowledge: Making Meaningful Connections
				Elaboration
				Organization
				Imagery
			Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships: Organizing Learning
				Context
				Desirable Difficulty
				Effective Practice
			Reaching Every Student: Make It Meaningful
				Mnemonics
			If You Have to Memorize . . .
			Lessons for Teachers: Declarative Knowledge
			Development of Procedural Knowledge
				Automated Basic Skills
				Domain-Specific Strategies
		Guidelines: Helping Students Understand and Remember
		Module 27 Summary
		Key Terms
		Connect and Extend to Licensure
		Teachers’ Casebook—Remembering the Basics: What Would They Do?
	Cluster 9 Complex Cognitive Processes
		Teachers’ Casebook—Uncritical Thinking: What Would You Do?
		Overview and Objectives
		Metacognition
			Metacognitive Knowledge and Regulation
			Individual Differences in Metacognition
			Lessons for Teachers: Developing Metacognition
				Metacognitive Development for Younger Students.
				Metacognitive Development for Secondary and College Students (Like You)
		Learning Strategies
			Being Strategic About Learning
				Deciding What Is Important
				Summaries
				Underlining and Highlighting
				Taking Notes
			Visual Tools for Organizing
			Retrieval Practice: Powerful but Underused
			Reading Strategies
			Applying Learning Strategies
				Appropriate Tasks
				Valuing Learning
				Effort and Efficacy
			Reaching Every Student: Teaching How to Learn
		Module 28 Summary
		Problem Solving
			Identifying: Problem Finding
			Defining Goals and Representing the Problem
				Focusing Attention on What is Relevant
				Understanding the Words
				Understanding the Whole Problem
				Translation and Schema Training: Direct Instruction in Representing Problems
				Translation and Schema Training: Worked Examples
				Worked Examples and Embodied Cognition
				The Results of Problem Representation.
			Searching for Possible Solution Strategies
				Algorithms
				Heuristics
			Anticipating, Acting, and Looking Back
			Factors That Hinder Problem Solving
				Some Problems with Heuristics
			Guidelines: Applying Problem Solving
			Expert Knowledge and Problem Solving
				Knowing What Is Important
				Memory for Patterns and Organization
				Procedural Knowledge
				Planning and Monitoring
		Guidelines: Becoming an Expert Student
		Module 29 Summary
		Critical Thinking and Argumentation
			What Critical Thinkers Do: Paul and Elder’s Model
			Teaching Critical Thinking
				Applying Critical Thinking in Specific Subjects
			Point/Counterpoint: Should Schools Teach Critical Thinking and Problem Solving?
				Thinking Critically About Online Sources
				Argumentation
					Two Styles of Argumentation
					Lessons for Teachers
		Teaching for Transfer
			The Many Views of Transfer
			Teaching for Positive Transfer
				What is Worth Learning?
				Lessons for Teachers: Supporting Transfer
				Stages of Transfer for Strategies
		Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships: Promoting Transfer
		Bringing It All Together: Teaching for Complex Learning and Robust Knowledge
			What Is Robust Knowledge?
			Teaching for Robust Knowledge
				Practice
				Worked Examples
				Analogies
				Integrating Multiple Texts
				Self-Explanations
		Module 30 Summary
		Key Terms
		Connect and Extend to Licensure
		Teachers’ Casebook—Uncritical Thinking: What Would They Do?
	Cluster 10 Constructivism and Interactive Learning
		Teachers’ Casebook—Necessity Is the Mother of Inventive Teaching: What Would You Do?
		Overview and Objectives
		Cognitive and Social Constructivism
			Constructivist Views of Learning
				Cognitive Constructivism
				Social Constructivism
			How Is Knowledge Constructed?
			Knowledge: Situated or General?
			Common Elements of Learner-Centered Teaching
				Complex Learning Environments and Authentic Tasks
				Social Negotiation
				Multiple Perspectives and Representations of Content
				Self-Awareness and Reflection About the Knowledge Construction Process
				Student Ownership of Learning
		Designing Constructivist Learning Environments
			Facilitating Deep Learning in a Constructivist Classroom
				Scaffolding
				Advance Organizers
				Facilitating Through Asking and Answering Deep Questions
			Guidelines: Facilitating Deep Questioning
			Inquiry-Based Learning
				Examples of Inquiry
				Problem-Based Learning
				Does Inquiry-Based Instruction Improve Learning?
			Point/Counterpoint: Are Teaching Approaches to Support Inquiry- and Problem-Based Learning Effective?
				Being Smart About Inquiry Learning
			Cognitive Apprenticeships
		Module 31 Summary
		Collaboration and Cooperation
		Learning in Groups
			Goals of Group Work
			What Can Go Wrong: Misuses of Group Learning
			Learning Through Cooperation
				Effects of Cooperative Learning
				Teacher’s Role in Cooperative Learning
			Designing Cooperative Learning Tasks
				Highly Structured, Review, and Skill-Building Tasks
				ILL-structured, Conceptual, and Problem-Solving Tasks
				Social Skills and Communication Tasks
				Giving and Receiving Explanations
			Setting Up Cooperative Groups
				Group Composition
				Assigning Roles
			Examples of Cooperative Learning Techniques
				Reciprocal Questioning
				Jigsaw
				Constructive/Structured Controversies
			Reaching Every Student: Using Cooperative Learning Wisely
			Guidelines: Using Cooperative Learning
			Module 32 Summary
		Designing Interactive Digital Learning Environments
			Technology and Learning
			Technology-Rich Environments
				Mobile Learning
				Virtual Learning Environments
				Immersive Virtual Learning Environments
				Games
			Computational Thinking and Coding
			Media Use, Digital Citizenship, and Media Literacy
				Developmentally Appropriate Activities
				Digital Citizenship
				Critical Media Literacy
			Guidelines: Supporting the Development of Media Literacy
			Blending and Flipping: Technology-Powered Pedagogy
			Dilemmas of Constructivist Practice
		Module 33 Summary
		Key Terms
		Connect and Extend to Licensure
		Teachers’ Casebook—Necessity Is the Mother of Inventive Teaching: What Would They Do?
	Cluster 11 Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation
		Teachers’ Casebook—Failure to Self-Regulate: What Would You Do?
		Overview and Objectives
		Social Cognitive Theory
			A Self-Directed Life: Albert Bandura
			Beyond Behaviorism
			Triadic Reciprocal Causality
		Modeling: Learning by Observing Others
			Elements of Observational Learning
				Attention
				Retention
				Production
				Motivation and Reinforcement
			Observational Learning in Teaching
				Directing Attention
				Fine-Tuning Already-Learned Behaviors
				Strengthening or Weakening Inhibitions
				Teaching New Behaviors
				Arousing Emotion
		Guidelines: Using Observational Learning
		Agency and Self-Efficacy
			Self-Efficacy, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem
			Sources of Self-Efficacy
			Self-Efficacy in Learning and Teaching
		Guidelines: Supporting Self-Efficacy
			Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy
		Module 34 Summary
		Self-Regulated Learning: Skill and Will
			How Does Self-Regulation Develop?
				Knowledge
				Motivation
				Volition
			Point/Counterpoint: Are “Grittier” Students More Successful?
				Developmental Changes in Self-Regulation
			A Social Cognitive Model of Self-Regulated Learning
			Reaching Every Student: Technology and Self-Regulation
			Self-Regulation of Emotions
				Social and Emotional Learning
				Teacher Stress and Self-Regulation
		Guidelines: Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation
		Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Learning
			Complex Tasks
			Agency and Control
			Self-Management
			Self-Evaluation
			Collaboration
		Bringing It All Together: Theories of Learning
		Module 35 Summary
		Key Terms
		Connect and Extend to Licensure
		Teachers’ Casebook—Failure to Self-Regulate: What Would They Do?
	Cluster 12 Motivation in Learning and Teaching
		Teachers’ Casebook—Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin: What Would You Do?
		Overview and Objectives
		What Is Motivation?
			Meeting Some Students
			Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
			What You Already Know About Motivation
		Needs and Self-Determination
			Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
			Self-Determination: Need for Competence, Autonomy, and Relatedness
				Self-Determination in the Classroom
				Need-Supportive Versus Need-Thwarting Classrooms
			Guidelines: Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy
				Supportive Relationships as Motivators
			Needs: Lessons for Teachers
		Module 36 Summary
		Goals and Goal Orientations
			Goal Setting: What Am I Trying to Do?
			Making Goals Work: Feedback, Framing, and Commitment
			Goal Orientations: Why Am I Trying to Do This?
				Wait—Are Performance Goals Always Bad?
				Work-Avoidance Goals
				Contextual Influences on Goal Orientation
			Social Goals
			Goals: Lessons for Teachers
		Expectancies, Values, and Costs
			Expectancy for Success
			Task Value
			Perceived Cost
			Expectancy, Value, and Cost: Lessons for Teachers
		Attributions and Beliefs About Ability
			Attributions in the Classroom
			Teacher Attributions Trigger Student Attributions
			Mindsets About Ability
			Ability Mindsets in the Classroom
			Mindsets About Failure
			Attributions and Mindsets: Lessons for Teachers
		Guidelines: Encouraging a Healthy Mindset
		Module 37 Summary
		How Do You Feel About Learning? Interest, Curiosity, and Emotions
			Tapping Interests
				Two Kinds of Interests
				Catching and Holding Interests
			Curiosity: Novelty and Complexity
		Point/Counterpoint: Does Making Learning Fun Make for Good Learning?
		Guidelines: Building on Students’ Interests and Curiosity
			Flow
			Emotions
				Emotion and the Body
				Achievement Emotions
				Emotions in the Classroom
			Anxiety in the Classroom
			Reaching Every Student: Coping with Negative Emotions
		Guidelines: Coping with Test Anxiety
			Interest, Curiosity, and Emotions: Lessons for Teachers
		Module 38 Summary
		Strategies to Encourage Motivation to Learn
			Why Am I Learning This? Is It Valuable, Useful, Relevant?
				Creating Authentic Tasks
				Increasing Perceived Relevance and Utility
			Will I Enjoy This?
				Enhancing Curiosity, Interest, and Intrinsic Value
				Supporting Autonomy
			Can I Do It? Building Confidence and Positive Expectations
			What Do I Need to Do to Succeed? Providing Structures That Support Progress
			Do I Belong in This Classroom? Creating Inclusive Opportunities
		Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships: Supporting the Sociocultural Foundations of Motivation
		Module 39 Summary
		Key Terms
		Connect and Extend to Licensure
		Teachers’ Casebook—Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin: What Would They Do?
Part IV Teaching and Assessing
	Cluster 13 Creating Supportive Learning Environments
		Teachers’ Casebook—Bullies and Victims What Would You Do?
		Overview and Objectives
		The What and Why of Supportive Classroom Organization
			The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation
			The Basic Goals: Access, Time, Relationships, and Self-Management
				Access to Learning
				More Time for Learning
				Management Means Relationships
				Management for Self-Management
		Creating a Positive Learning Environment
			Relevant Research Results
			Routines and Rules Required: In-Person Learning
				Routines and Procedures
			Guidelines: Establishing Class Routines for In-Person Learning
				Rules
				Rules for In-Person Teaching in Elementary School
				Rules for In-Person Teaching in Secondary School
				Consequences
				Who Sets the Rules and Consequences?
			Routines and Rules Required: Remote Learning
			Guidelines: Establishing Routines and Rules for Remote Learning
			Planning Spaces for Learning
				Personal Territories and Seating Arrangements.
				Interest Areas
			Guidelines: Designing Learning Spaces
			Getting Started: The First Weeks of Class
				Effective Managers for Elementary Students
				Effective Managers for Secondary Students
		Module 40 Summary
		Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning
			Encouraging Engagement
			Guidelines: Keeping Students Engaged
			Prevention Is the Best Medicine
				Withitness
				Overlapping and Group Focus
				Movement Management
				Student Social Skills as Prevention
			Caring Relationships: Connections with School
				Teacher Connections
				School Connections and Belonging
				Creating Communities of Care for Adolescents
		Guidelines: Creating Caring Relationships
		Module 41 Summary
		Dealing with Discipline Problems
			Stopping Problems Quickly
			If You Impose Penalties
		Guidelines: Imposing Penalties
			What About School Suspensions and Zero Tolerance?
		Point/Counterpoint: Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea?
			Reaching Every Student: Restorative Justice
			Teacher-Imposed Penalties Versus Student Responsibility
			Bullying and Cyberbullying
				Victims
				Why Do Students Bully?
				What Can Teachers Do? Bullying and Teasing
				Cyberbullying
			Special Challenges with High School Students
		Guidelines: Handling Potentially Explosive Situations
		The Need for Communication
			Message Sent—Message Received
			Empathetic Listening
			When Listening Is Not Enough: I-Messages, Assertive Discipline, and Problem Solving
				I-Messages
				Assertive Discipline
				Confrontations and Negotiations
		Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management
		Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships: Classroom Organizationand Management
		Module 42 Summary
		Key Terms
		Connect and Extend to Licensure
		Teachers’ Casebook—Bullies and Victims: What Would They Do?
	Cluster 14 Teaching Every Student
		Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching Every Student: What Would You Do?
		Overview and Objectives
		Research on Teaching
			Characteristics of Effective Teachers
				Clarity and Organization
				Enthusiasm and Warmth
			Knowledge for Teaching
			Teacher Expectations
				Two Kinds of Expectation Effects
				Sources of Expectations
				Do Teachers’ Expectations Really Affect Students’ Achievement?
				Lessons for Teachers: Communicating Appropriate Expectations
			Guidelines: Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations
				The Goal: Ambitious Teaching
		The First Step: Planning
			Research on Planning
			Learning Goals
				An Example of State-Level Goals: The Common Core
				Classrooms Goals for Learning
			Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies
				The Cognitive Domain
				The Affective Domain
				The Psychomotor Domain
			The Cognitive Demands of Learning Objectives: Webb’s Depth of Knowledge
			Planning from a Constructivist Perspective
		Guidelines: Using Learning Objectives
		Module 43 Summary
		Teaching Approaches
			Research on Teaching Strategies
			Explicit Teaching and Direct Instruction
				Rosenshine’s Six Teaching Functions
				Why Does Direct Instruction Work?
				Evaluating Direct Instruction
			Guidelines: Effective Direct Instruction
			Independent Work and Homework
				Independent Work
				Homework
			Point/Counterpoint: Is Homework Valuable?
			Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships: Homework
			Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback
				Kinds of Questions
				Asking Authentic Questions
				Fitting the Questions to the Students—And Waiting
				Responding to Student Answers
				Group Discussion and Quality Talk
			Lessons for Teachers: Fitting Teaching to Your Goals
			Guidelines: Productive Group Discussions
			Putting It All Together: Understanding by Design
		Differentiated Instruction
			Within-Class and Flexible Grouping
				The Problems with Ability Grouping
				Flexible Grouping
			Guidelines: Using Flexible Grouping
			Differentiated Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms
				Assistive Technology
			Reaching Every Student: Differentiation with Universal Design for Learning
		Module 44 Summary
		Key Terms
		Connect and Extend to Licensure
		Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching Every Student: What Would They Do?
	Cluster 15 Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing
		Teachers’ Casebook—Giving Meaningful Grades What Would You Do?
		Overview and Objectives
		Basics of Assessment
			Measurement and Assessment
				Formative, Interim, and Summative Assessment
			Assessing the Assessments: Reliability and Validity
				Reliability of Test Scores
				Validity
				Absence of Bias
		Classroom Assessment: Testing
			Interpreting Any Test Score
				Norm-Referenced Test Interpretations
				Criterion-Referenced Test Interpretations
			Using the Tests from Textbooks
			Selected-Response Testing
				Using Multiple-Choice Tests
				Writing Multiple-Choice Questions
			Constructed Responses: Essay Testing
			Guidelines: Writing Multiple-Choice Test Items
				Constructing Essay Tests
				Evaluating Essays
			Assessing Traditional Testing
		Module 45 Summary
		Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments
			Informal Assessments
				Exit Tickets
				Journals
				Involving Students in Assessments
			Authentic Assessments: Performances and Portfolios
				Performances
				Portfolios
			Evaluating Portfolios and Performances
				Scoring Rubrics
			Guidelines: Creating Portfolios
				Reliability and Validity
			Guidelines: Developing a Rubric
				Diversity and Bias in Performance Assessment
			Assessing Complex Thinking
			Classroom Assessment: Lessons for Teachers
		Grading
			Norm-Referenced Versus Criterion-Referenced Grading
			Effects of Grading on Students
				The Value of Failing?
				Retention in Grade
			Point/Counterpoint: Should Children Be Held Back?
			Grades and Motivation
			Beyond Grading: Communicating with Families
			Guidelines: Using Any Grading System
		Module 46 Summary
		Standardized Testing
			Types of Scores
				Measurements of Central Tendency and Standard Deviation
				The Normal Distribution
				Percentile Rank Scores
				Grade-Equivalent Scores
				Standard Scores
			Interpreting Standardized Test Reports
				Discussing Test Results with Families
			Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships: Conferences and Explaining Test Results
			Accountability and High-Stakes Testing
				Making Decisions
				What Do Teachers Think?
				Documented Problems with High-Stakes Testing
			New Directions: PARCC and SBAC
			Using High-Stakes Testing Well: Lessons for Teachers
			Reaching Every Student: Helping Students with Disabilities Prepare for High-Stakes Tests
			Guidelines: Preparing Yourself and Your Students for Testing
			Teacher Accountability and Evaluation
				Value-Added Models
				So How Should We Evaluate Teachers?
				A Broader Approach: Measures of Teacher Effectiveness
		Module 47 Summary
		Key Terms
		Connect and Extend to Licensure
		Teachers’ Casebook—Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would They Do?
Licensure Appendix
Glossary
References
Name Index
Subject Index