Educational psychology

Educational Psychology......Page 1
Title Page......Page 3
Copyright......Page 4
Dedication......Page 5
About the Author......Page 6
Preface......Page 7
Brief Contents......Page 15
Contents......Page 17
Special Features......Page 28
 TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—LEAVING NO STUDENT BEHIND: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 30
 OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 31
  Students Today: Dramatic Diversity and Remarkable Technology......Page 32
  High Expectations for Teachers and Students......Page 33
   THE COST OF POOR TEACHING......Page 35
   A SUBURBAN FIFTH GRADE......Page 36
   MODELS OF GOOD TEACHING......Page 37
  Beginning Teachers......Page 40
  In the Beginning: Linking Educational Psychology and Teaching......Page 41
   SKIPPING GRADES......Page 42
   OBVIOUS ANSWERS?......Page 43
   EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES......Page 44
   ETHNOGRAPHY......Page 45
   QUANTITATIVE VERSUS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH......Page 46
 POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Kind of Research Should Guide Education?......Page 47
  TEACHERS AS RESEARCHERS......Page 48
  Theories for Teaching......Page 49
  Supporting Student Learning......Page 50
 SUMMARY......Page 52
 KEY TERMS......Page 54
 TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—LEAVING NO STUDENT BEHIND: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 55
PART III: TEACHING AND ASSESSING......Page 0
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—SYMBOLS AND CYMBALS: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 58
  OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 59
    WHAT IS THE SOURCE OF DEVELOPMENT? NATURE VERSUS NURTURE......Page 60
    BEWARE OF EITHER/OR......Page 61
  THE BRAIN AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT......Page 62
   The Developing Brain: Neurons......Page 63
   The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex......Page 65
   Adolescent Development and the Brain......Page 66
   Neuroscience, Learning, and Teaching......Page 67
  POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Brain-Based Education......Page 68
   INSTRUCTION AND BRAIN DEVELOPMENT......Page 69
   THE BRAIN AND LEARNING TO READ......Page 70
   Lessons for Teachers: General Principles......Page 71
  PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT......Page 72
    ORGANIZATION......Page 73
    INFANCY: THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE......Page 74
    EARLY CHILDHOOD TO THE EARLY ELEMENTARY YEARS: THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE......Page 75
   LATER ELEMENTARY TO THE MIDDLE SCHOOL YEARS: THE CON-CRETE-OPERATIONAL STAGE......Page 77
  GUIDELINES: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child......Page 79
  GUIDELINES: Helping Students to Use Formal Operations......Page 81
    THE TROUBLE WITH STAGES......Page 82
    UNDERESTIMATING CHILDREN’S ABILITIES......Page 83
  VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE......Page 84
   The Social Sources of Individual Thinking......Page 85
    TECHNICAL TOOLS IN A DIGITAL AGE......Page 86
    PRIVATE SPEECH: VYGOTSKY’S AND PIAGET’S VIEWS COMPARED......Page 87
   Limitations of Vygotsky’s Theory......Page 89
    UNDERSTANDING AND BUILDING ON STUDENTS’ THINKING......Page 90
   Vygotsky: What Can We Learn?......Page 91
   An Example Curriculum: Tools of the Mind......Page 92
   Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic Middle”......Page 93
  SUMMARY......Page 94
  KEY TERMS......Page 97
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—SYMBOLS AND CYMBALS: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 98
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—MEAN GIRLS: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 100
  OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 101
    ELEMENTARY SCHOOL YEARS......Page 102
    EARLY AND LATER MATURING......Page 103
    CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN PLAY......Page 104
    OBESITY......Page 105
    EATING DISORDERS......Page 106
  BRONFENBRENNER: THE SOCIAL CONTEXT FOR DEVELOPMENT......Page 108
    FAMILY STRUCTURE......Page 109
    PARENTING STYLES......Page 110
    ATTACHMENT......Page 111
   DIVORCE......Page 112
    CROWDS......Page 113
    POPULARITY......Page 114
    CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF REJECTION......Page 115
    RELATIONAL AGGRESSION......Page 116
   Reaching Every Student: Teacher Support......Page 117
   ACADEMIC AND PERSONAL CARING......Page 118
   Teachers and Child Abuse......Page 119
   Society and Media......Page 120
   Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development......Page 121
    THE PRESCHOOL YEARS: TRUST, AUTONOMY, AND INITIATIVE......Page 122
    ADOLESCENCE: THE SEARCH FOR IDENTITY......Page 123
  GUIDELINES: Encouraging Initiative and Industry......Page 124
   IDENTITY AND TECHNOLOGY......Page 125
   BEYOND THE SCHOOL YEARS......Page 126
    RACIAL IDENTITY: OUTCOME AND PROCESS......Page 127
    THE STRUCTURE OF SELF-CONCEPT......Page 128
    HOW SELF-CONCEPT DEVELOPS......Page 129
   Sex Differences in Self-Concept of Academic Competence......Page 130
   Self-Esteem......Page 131
  POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Should Schools Do to Encourage Students’ Self-Esteem?......Page 132
    KOHLBERG’S THEORIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT......Page 133
    CRITICISMS OF KOHLBERG’S THEORY......Page 134
    MORAL VERSUS CONVENTIONAL DOMAINS......Page 135
    IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHERS......Page 136
   Beyond Reasoning: Haidt’s Social Intuitionist Model of Moral Psychology......Page 137
   Moral Behavior and the Example of Cheating......Page 138
    DEALING WITH CHEATING......Page 139
  SUMMARY......Page 140
  KEY TERMS......Page 143
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—MEAN GIRLS: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 144
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—INCLUDING EVERY STUDENT: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 146
  OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 147
    DISABILITIES AND HANDICAPS......Page 148
    POSSIBLE BIASES IN THE APPLICATION OF LABELS......Page 149
    INTELLIGENCE: ONE ABILITY OR MANY?......Page 150
    WHAT ARE THESE INTELLIGENCES......Page 151
    MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES GO TO SCHOOL......Page 153
   Intelligence as a Process......Page 154
    BINET’S DILEMMA......Page 155
    THE FLYNN EFFECT: ARE WE GETTING SMARTER?......Page 156
   INTELLIGENCE AND ACHIEVEMENT......Page 157
   Gender Differences in Intelligence......Page 158
  LEARNING AND THINKING STYLES......Page 159
    CAUTIONS ABOUT LEARNING STYLES......Page 160
   Beyond Either/Or......Page 161
    LEAST RESTRICTIVE ENVIRONMENT......Page 162
    INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION PROGRAM......Page 163
   Section 504 Protections......Page 164
  GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships—Productive Conferences......Page 166
   Neuroscience and Learning Challenges......Page 167
    STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS......Page 168
   Students with Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders......Page 170
    ALTERNATIVES/ADDITIONS TO DRUG TREATMENTS......Page 171
  POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Pills or Skills for Children with ADHD?......Page 172
   Students with Communication Disorders......Page 173
    LANGUAGE DISORDERS......Page 174
   Students with Emotional or Behavioral Difficulties......Page 175
    SUICIDE......Page 176
   DRUG ABUSE......Page 177
   PREVENTION......Page 178
   Students with Intellectual Disabilities......Page 179
    CEREBRAL PALSY AND MULTIPLE DISABILITIES......Page 180
    OTHER SERIOUS HEALTH CONCERNS: ASTHMA, HIV/AIDS, AND DIABETES......Page 181
    STUDENTS WHO ARE DEAF......Page 182
    INTERVENTIONS......Page 183
  STUDENTS WHO ARE GIFTED AND TALENTED......Page 184
    WHAT IS THE ORIGIN OF THESE GIFTS?......Page 186
    RECOGNIZING GIFTS AND TALENTS......Page 187
    ACCELERATION......Page 189
    METHODS AND STRATEGIES......Page 190
  SUMMARY......Page 191
  KEY TERMS......Page 194
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—INCLUDING EVERY STUDENT: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 195
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—CULTURES CLASH IN THE CLASSROOM: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 198
  OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 199
    SOUNDS AND PRONUNCIATION......Page 200
    VOCABULARY AND MEANING......Page 201
    PRAGMATICS: USING LANGUAGE IN SOCIAL SITUATIONS......Page 202
   Emergent Literacy......Page 203
    INSIDE-OUT AND OUTSIDE-IN SKILLS......Page 204
   Emergent Literacy and Language Diversity......Page 205
  GUIDELINES: Supporting Language and Promoting Literacy......Page 206
   Dual-Language Development......Page 207
    BENEFITS OF BILINGUALISM......Page 208
    LANGUAGE LOSS......Page 209
   Signed Languages......Page 210
   What Is Involved in Being Bilingual?......Page 211
   Contextualized and Academic Language......Page 212
  GUIDELINES: Promoting Language Learning......Page 213
    DIALECTS AND PRONUNCIATION......Page 214
  TEACHING IMMIGRANT STUDENTS......Page 215
   Immigrants and Refugees......Page 216
    FOUR STUDENT PROFILES......Page 217
   Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds......Page 218
  TEACHING STUDENTS WHO ARE ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS......Page 219
    BILINGUALISM FOR ALL: TWO-WAY IMMERSION......Page 220
  POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Is the Best Way to Teach Students Who Are ELLs?......Page 221
   Sheltered Instruction......Page 223
   Affective and Emotional/Social Considerations......Page 225
  GUIDELINES: Providing Emotional Support and Increasing Self-Esteem for Students Who Are ELLs......Page 226
    STUDENT-LED CONFERENCES......Page 227
  SPECIAL CHALLENGES: STUDENTS WHO ARE ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS WITH DISABILITIES AND SPECIAL GIFTS......Page 228
   Reaching Every Student: Recognizing Giftedness in Bilingual Students......Page 229
  SUMMARY......Page 231
  KEY TERMS......Page 233
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—CULTURES CLASH IN THE CLASSROOM: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 234
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—WHITE GIRLS CLUB: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 236
  OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 237
   American Cultural Diversity......Page 238
   Meet Four More Students......Page 239
   Cautions: Interpreting Cultural Differences......Page 241
  ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CLASS DIFFERENCES......Page 242
   Poverty and School Achievement......Page 243
    PEER INFLUENCES AND RESISTANCE CULTURES......Page 246
    TRACKING: POOR TEACHING......Page 247
  POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Tracking an Effective Strategy?......Page 248
   Terms: Ethnicity and Race......Page 249
   Ethnic and Racial Differences in School Achievement......Page 250
   The Legacy of Discrimination......Page 252
    THE DEVELOPMENT OF PREJUDICE......Page 253
    CONTINUING DISCRIMINATION......Page 254
    WHO IS AFFECTED BY STEREOTYPE THREAT?......Page 255
    SHORT-TERM EFFECTS: TEST PERFORMANCE......Page 256
    COMBATING STEREOTYPE THREAT......Page 257
    SEXUAL ORIENTATION......Page 258
   Gender Roles......Page 260
   Gender Bias in Teaching......Page 261
  GUIDELINES: Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching......Page 262
   Culturally Relevant Pedagogy......Page 263
    RESILIENT CLASSROOMS......Page 265
    SELF-AGENCY STRAND......Page 266
  GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships......Page 267
    CULTURAL VALUES AND LEARNING PREFERENCES......Page 268
    SOURCES OF MISUNDERSTANDINGS......Page 269
    TEACH YOUR STUDENTS......Page 270
  GUIDELINES: Culturally Relevant Teaching......Page 271
  SUMMARY......Page 272
  KEY TERMS......Page 274
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—WHITE GIRLS CLUB: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 275
  OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 278
   Neuroscience of Behavioral Learning......Page 280
   Learning Is Not Always What It Seems......Page 281
  EARLY EXPLANATIONS OF LEARNING: CONTIGUITY AND CLASSICAL CONDITIONING......Page 282
  GUIDELINES: Applying Classical Conditioning......Page 283
   Types of Consequences......Page 284
    REINFORCEMENT......Page 285
   Reinforcement Schedules......Page 286
   Antecedents and Behavior Change......Page 288
    PROMPTING......Page 289
  PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER TO APPLY OPERANT CONDITIONING: APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS......Page 290
    SELECTING REINFORCERS: THE PREMACK PRINCIPLE......Page 291
  GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Praise Appropriately......Page 292
   SHAPING......Page 293
   Contingency Contracts, Token Reinforcement, and Group Consequences......Page 294
    CONTINGENCY CONTRACTS......Page 295
    GROUP CONSEQUENCES......Page 296
   Handling Undesirable Behavior......Page 297
    RESPONSE COST......Page 298
   Reaching Every Student: Severe Behavior Problems......Page 299
  GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Punishment......Page 300
  CONTEMPORARY APPLICATIONS: FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT, POSITIVE BEHAVIOR SUPPORTS, AND SELF-MANAGEMENT......Page 301
   Discovering the “Why”: Functional Behavioral Assessments......Page 302
   Positive Behavior Supports......Page 303
    GOAL SETTING......Page 304
    SELF-REINFORCEMENT......Page 305
    ENACTIVE AND OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING......Page 306
   Criticisms of Behavioral Methods......Page 307
  POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Students Be Rewarded for Learning?......Page 308
    STRATEGIES......Page 309
  SUMMARY......Page 310
  KEY TERMS......Page 312
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—SICK OF CLASS: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 313
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—REMEMBERING THE BASICS: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 316
  OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 317
   The Brain and Cognitive Learning......Page 318
    GENERAL AND SPECIFIC KNOWLEDGE......Page 319
  COGNITIVE VIEWS OF MEMORY......Page 320
    PERCEPTION......Page 322
    ATTENTION AND MULTITASKING......Page 323
    ATTENTION AND TEACHING......Page 324
   Working Memory......Page 325
    THE PHONOLOGICAL LOOP......Page 326
    THE EPISODIC BUFFER......Page 327
    RETAINING INFORMATION IN WORKING MEMORY......Page 328
    LEVELS OF PROCESSING THEORY......Page 329
    DEVELOPMENTAL DIFFERENCES......Page 330
    INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES......Page 331
    CONTENTS: DECLARATIVE, PROCEDURAL, AND SELF-REGULATORY KNOWLEDGE......Page 332
    TWO ARE BETTER THAN ONE: WORDS AND IMAGES......Page 334
    PROTOTYPES, EXEMPLARS, AND THEORY-BASED CATEGORIES......Page 335
    SCHEMAS......Page 336
   Implicit Memories......Page 337
   Retrieving Information in Long-Term Memory......Page 338
   Individual Differences in Long-Term Memory......Page 339
    ELABORATION, ORGANIZATION, IMAGERY, AND CONTEXT......Page 340
   IMAGERY......Page 341
   Reaching Every Student: Make it Meaningful......Page 343
    ROTE MEMORIZATION......Page 344
   Development of Procedural Knowledge......Page 345
  POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What’s Wrong with Memorizing?......Page 346
   DOMAIN-SPECIFIC STRATEGIES......Page 347
  SUMMARY......Page 348
  KEY TERMS......Page 350
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—REMEMBERING THE BASICS: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 352
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—UNCRITICAL THINKING: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 354
  OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 355
   Metacognitive Knowledge and Regulation......Page 356
    METACOGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT FOR YOUNGER STUDENTS......Page 357
   Being Strategic About Learning......Page 359
    SUMMARIES......Page 360
    TAKING NOTES......Page 361
   Visual Tools for Organizing......Page 362
   Reading Strategies......Page 364
   Reaching Every Student: Learning Strategies for Struggling Students......Page 365
  GUIDELINES: Becoming an Expert Student......Page 366
  PROBLEM SOLVING......Page 367
   Identifying: Problem Finding......Page 368
    UNDERSTANDING THE WORDS......Page 369
    TRANSLATION AND SCHEMA TRAINING: DIRECT INSTRUCTION IN SCHEMAS......Page 370
    TRANSLATION AND SCHEMA TRAINING: WORKED EXAMPLES......Page 371
    THE RESULTS OF PROBLEM REPRESENTATION......Page 372
    HEURISTICS......Page 373
   Factors That Hinder Problem Solving......Page 374
    SOME PROBLEMS WITH HEURISTICS......Page 375
    KNOWING WHAT IS IMPORTANT......Page 376
    PLANNING AND MONITORING......Page 377
   OK, But So What: Why Does Creativity Matter?......Page 378
   What Are the Sources of Creativity?......Page 379
   Creativity in the Classroom......Page 380
   The Big C: Revolutionary Innovation......Page 381
  GUIDELINES: Applying and Encouraging Creativity......Page 382
   One Model of Critical Thinking: Paul and Elder......Page 383
   Applying Critical Thinking in Specific Subjects......Page 384
   Argumentation......Page 385
  POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Schools Teach Critical Thinking and Problem Solving?......Page 386
   The Many Views of Transfer......Page 387
    WHAT IS WORTH LEARNING?......Page 388
    STAGES OF TRANSFER FOR STRATEGIES......Page 389
  SUMMARY......Page 390
  KEY TERMS......Page 392
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—UNCRITICAL THINKING: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 393
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—LEARNING TO COOPERATE: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 396
  OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 397
   Basic Assumptions of the Learning Sciences......Page 398
   Embodied Cognition......Page 399
  COGNITIVE AND SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM......Page 400
    PSYCHOLOGICAL/INDIVIDUAL/COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM......Page 401
    VYGOTSKY’S SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM......Page 402
   How Is Knowledge Constructed?......Page 403
   Knowledge: Situated or General?......Page 404
    COMPLEX LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS AND AUTHENTIC TASKS......Page 405
  APPLYING CONSTRUCTIVIST PERSPECTIVES......Page 406
   Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning......Page 407
    PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING......Page 408
   Cognitive Apprenticeships and Reciprocal Teaching......Page 410
  POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning Effective Teaching Approaches?......Page 411
   Collaboration and Cooperation......Page 413
    BEYOND GROUPS TO COOPERATION......Page 414
   Tasks for Cooperative Learning......Page 415
   Preparing Students for Cooperative Learning......Page 416
    GIVING AND RECEIVING EXPLANATIONS......Page 417
    ASSIGNING ROLES......Page 418
    RECIPROCAL QUESTIONING......Page 419
    CONSTRUCTIVE/STRUCTURED CONTROVERSIES......Page 420
   Reaching Every Student: Using Cooperative Learning Wisely......Page 421
   Dilemmas of Constructivist Practice......Page 422
  SERVICE LEARNING......Page 423
  GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships—Service Learning......Page 424
   Technology and Learning......Page 425
    VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS......Page 426
    IMMERSIVE VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS......Page 427
   Developmentally Appropriate Computer Activities for Young Children......Page 428
    COMPUTATIONAL THINKING AND CODING......Page 429
  GUIDELINES: Using Computers......Page 430
   MEDIA/DIGITAL LITERACY......Page 431
  SUMMARY......Page 432
  KEY TERMS......Page 434
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—LEARNING TO COOPERATE: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 435
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—FAILURE TO SELF-REGULATE: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 438
  OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 439
   Beyond Behaviorism......Page 440
   Triarchic Reciprocal Causality......Page 441
  MODELING: LEARNING BY OBSERVING OTHERS......Page 442
    ATTENTION......Page 443
    MOTIVATION AND REINFORCEMENT......Page 444
    AROUSING EMOTION......Page 445
  SELF-EFFICACY AND AGENCY......Page 446
   Sources of Self-Efficacy......Page 447
   Self-Efficacy in Learning and Teaching......Page 448
  GUIDELINES: Encouraging Self-Efficacy......Page 449
  SELF-REGULATED LEARNING......Page 450
  POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are High Levels of Teacher Efficacy Beneficial?......Page 451
    MOTIVATION......Page 452
   Models of Self-Regulated Learning and Agency......Page 453
   An Individual Example of Self-Regulated Learning......Page 455
    MATH PROBLEM SOLVING......Page 456
   Another Approach to Self-Regulation: Cognitive Behavior Modification......Page 457
  GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships......Page 458
   Emotional Self-Regulation......Page 459
  GUIDELINES: Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation......Page 460
  TEACHING TOWARD SELF-EFFICACY AND SELF-REGULATED LEARNING......Page 461
   Control......Page 462
   Collaboration......Page 463
  BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER: THEORIES OF LEARNING......Page 464
  SUMMARY......Page 465
  KEY TERMS......Page 467
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—FAILURE TO SELF-REGULATE: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 468
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—MOTIVATING STUDENTS WHEN RESOURCES ARE THIN: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 470
  OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 471
   Meeting Some Students......Page 472
   Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation......Page 473
    HUMANISTIC APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION......Page 474
    SOCIOCULTURAL CONCEPTIONS OF MOTIVATION......Page 475
   Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs......Page 476
   Self-Determination: Need for Competence, Autonomy, and Relatedness......Page 477
    INFORMATION AND CONTROL......Page 478
   THE NEED FOR RELATEDNESS......Page 479
   Types of Goals and Goal Orientations......Page 480
    FOUR ACHIEVEMENT GOAL ORIENTATIONS IN SCHOOL......Page 481
    WAIT—ARE PERFORMANCE GOALS ALWAYS BAD?......Page 482
    GOALS IN SOCIAL CONTEXT......Page 483
   Beliefs About Knowing: Epistemological Beliefs......Page 484
   Beliefs About Ability......Page 485
   Beliefs About Causes and Control: Attribution Theory......Page 486
    TEACHER ACTIONS AND STUDENT ATTRIBUTIONS......Page 487
    SELF-WORTH......Page 488
  INTERESTS, CURIOSITY, EMOTIONS, AND ANXIETY......Page 490
    CATCHING AND HOLDING INTERESTS......Page 491
  POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Does Making Learning Fun Make for Good Learning?......Page 492
    NEUROSCIENCE AND EMOTION......Page 493
  GUIDELINES: Building on Students’ Interests and Curiosity......Page 494
   AROUSAL AND ANXIETY......Page 495
   HOW DOES ANXIETY INTERFERE WITH ACHIEVEMENT?......Page 496
   Reaching Every Student: Coping with Anxiety......Page 497
   Curiosity, Interests, and Emotions: Lessons for Teachers......Page 498
  MOTIVATION TO LEARN IN SCHOOL: ON TARGET......Page 499
    AUTHENTIC TASKS......Page 500
    RECOGNIZING ACCOMPLISHMENT......Page 501
    EVALUATION......Page 502
    PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER......Page 503
   Lessons for Teachers: Strategies to Encourage Motivation......Page 505
    DO I WANT TO DO IT? SEEING THE VALUE OF LEARNING......Page 506
    DO I BELONG IN THIS CLASSROOM?......Page 507
  SUMMARY......Page 508
  KEY TERMS......Page 511
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—MOTIVATING STUDENTS WHEN RESOURCES ARE THIN: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 512
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—BULLIES AND VICTIMS: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 514
  OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 515
  THE WHAT AND WHY OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT......Page 516
   The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation......Page 518
    MORE TIME FOR LEARNING......Page 519
    MANAGEMENT FOR SELF-MANAGEMENT......Page 520
   Some Research Results......Page 521
    RULES FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL......Page 522
  GUIDELINES: Establishing Class Routines......Page 523
   WHO SETS THE RULES AND CONSEQUENCES......Page 524
   Planning Spaces for Learning......Page 525
    INTEREST AREAS......Page 526
    EFFECTIVE MANAGERS FOR ELEMENTARY STUDENTS......Page 527
   Encouraging Engagement......Page 529
   Prevention Is the Best Medicine......Page 530
    STUDENT SOCIAL SKILLS AS PREVENTION......Page 531
    CREATING COMMUNITIES OF CARE FOR ADOLESCENTS......Page 532
  GUIDELINES: Creating Caring Relationships......Page 533
   Stopping Problems Quickly......Page 534
  GUIDELINES: Imposing Penalties......Page 535
    VICTIMS......Page 536
    BULLYING AND TEASING......Page 538
    CYBERBULLYING......Page 539
   Special Problems with High School Students......Page 540
  GUIDELINES: Handling Potentially Explosive Situations......Page 541
  POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea?......Page 542
   Message Sent—Message Received......Page 543
   Counseling: The Student’s Problem......Page 544
    ASSERTIVE DISCIPLINE......Page 545
   Reaching Every Student: Peer Mediation and Restorative Justice......Page 546
    THE 4 RS......Page 547
  GUIDELINES: Family and Community Partnerships—Classroom Management......Page 548
  DIVERSITY: CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE MANAGEMENT......Page 549
  SUMMARY......Page 550
  KEY TERMS......Page 552
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—BULLIES AND VICTIMS: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 554
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—REACHING AND TEACHING EVERY STUDENT: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 556
  OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 557
    WARMTH AND ENTHUSIASM......Page 558
   Recent Research on Teaching......Page 559
   Research on Planning......Page 561
    AN EXAMPLE OF STANDARDS: THE COMMON CORE......Page 562
    AN EXAMPLE OF STANDARDS FOR TEACHERS: TECHNOLOGY......Page 563
    GRONLUND: START WITH THE GENERAL......Page 564
    THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN......Page 565
    THE PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN......Page 566
   Planning from a Constructivist Perspective......Page 567
   Direct Instruction......Page 568
    ADVANCE ORGANIZERS......Page 569
    EVALUATING DIRECT INSTRUCTION......Page 570
    SEATWORK......Page 571
  GUIDELINES: Effective Direct Instruction......Page 572
   Questioning, Discussion, and Dialogue......Page 573
  POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Homework a Valuable Use of Time?......Page 574
   FITTING THE QUESTIONS TO THE STUDENTS......Page 575
   GROUP DISCUSSION......Page 577
   Putting It All Together: Understanding by Design......Page 578
  GUIDELINES: Productive Group Discussions......Page 579
    FLEXIBLE GROUPING......Page 581
   Adaptive Teaching......Page 582
   Reaching Every Student: Differentiated Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms......Page 583
   Technology and Differentiation......Page 585
  GUIDELINES: Teachers as Mentors......Page 586
   Two Kinds of Expectation Effects......Page 587
   Do Teachers’ Expectations Really Affect Students’ Achievement?......Page 588
   Lessons for Teachers: Communicating Appropriate Expectations......Page 589
  GUIDELINES: Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations......Page 590
  SUMMARY......Page 591
  KEY TERMS......Page 593
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—REACHING AND TEACHING EVERY STUDENT: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 594
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—GIVING MEANINGFUL GRADES: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?......Page 596
  OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES......Page 597
    FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT......Page 598
    NORM-REFERENCED TEST INTERPRETATIONS......Page 599
    CRITERION-REFERENCED TEST INTERPRETATIONS......Page 600
    CONFIDENCE INTERVAL......Page 601
    ABSENCE OF BIAS......Page 602
  CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT: TESTING......Page 603
   Objective Testing......Page 604
    CONSTRUCTING ESSAY TESTS......Page 605
   EVALUATING ESSAYS......Page 606
   CRITICISMS OF TRADITIONAL TESTS......Page 607
   Portfolios and Exhibitions......Page 608
    EXHIBITIONS......Page 609
    SCORING RUBRICS......Page 610
  GUIDELINES: Developing a Rubric......Page 611
   RELIABILITY, VALIDITY, GENERALIZABILITY......Page 612
    JOURNALS......Page 613
    INVOLVING STUDENTS IN ASSESSMENTS......Page 614
   Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Grading......Page 615
   Effects of Grading on Students......Page 616
   Grades and Motivation......Page 617
  POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Children Be Held Back?......Page 618
   Beyond Grading: Communicating with Families......Page 619
  GUIDELINES: Using Any Grading System......Page 620
    MEASUREMENTS OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND STANDARD DEVIATION......Page 621
    THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION......Page 622
    STANDARD SCORES......Page 623
   Interpreting Standardized Test Reports......Page 625
   Accountability and High-Stakes Testing......Page 626
   MAKING DECISIONS......Page 627
   DOCUMENTED PROBLEMS WITH HIGH-STAKES TESTING......Page 628
   USING HIGH-STAKES TESTING WELL......Page 629
  GUIDELINES: Preparing Yourself and Your Students for Testing......Page 630
    VALUE-ADDED MEASURES......Page 631
   Lessons for Teachers: Quality Assessment......Page 632
  SUMMARY......Page 633
  KEY TERMS......Page 635
  TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK—GIVING MEANINGFUL GRADES: WHAT WOULD THEY DO?......Page 636
Licensure Appendix......Page 639
Glossary......Page 657
References......Page 667
Name Index......Page 703
Subject Index......Page 713
Blank Page......Page 2