Edible Plants in Health and Diseases: Volume II : Phytochemical and Pharmacological Properties

Contents
About the Editors
1: Zingiber officinale: Its Ethanobotanical Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacology
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Origin and History
	1.3 Botanical Description
	1.4 Taxonomy
	1.5 Common Vernacular Names
	1.6 Traditional Uses
		1.6.1 The Indian System of Medicine
		1.6.2 The Chinese System of Medicine
		1.6.3 The Traditional Medicine of Iran
		1.6.4 The Unani System of Medicine
		1.6.5 Ginger in Siddha
		1.6.6 Other Medicinal Uses
	1.7 Phytochemistry of Ginger
		1.7.1 Nutrient Composition
		1.7.2 Chemical Composition of Ginger Essential Oils
		1.7.3 Volatile Oil/Essential Oil Composition
		1.7.4 Phenolic Compounds
		1.7.5 Other Chemical Constituents
		1.7.6 Proteins and Amino Acids
		1.7.7 Carbohydrates
		1.7.8 Organic Acids
		1.7.9 Inorganic Components
	1.8 Pharmacological Potentials
		1.8.1 Antioxidant Activity
		1.8.2 Anti-Inflammatory Activity
		1.8.3 Anticancer Activity
		1.8.4 Antidiabetic Activity
		1.8.5 Antimicrobial Activity
		1.8.6 Antihypertensive Activity
		1.8.7 Broncho-Protective Effects
		1.8.8 Hepatoprotective Effects
		1.8.9 Neuroprotective Effects
		1.8.10 Antiemetic Effects
		1.8.11 Antiobesity Effects
		1.8.12 Anti-Allergic Activity
		1.8.13 Antiviral Activity
		1.8.14 Radioprotective
		1.8.15 Anti-Thrombotic Effect
	1.9 Future Perspectives
	1.10 Conclusion
	References
2: An Insight into the Phytochemistry, Traditional Uses, and Pharmacology of Ziziphus spina-christi (L) Willd. (Sidr): An Edib...
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Traditional/Folklore Medicinal Uses of Ziziphus spina-christi
	2.3 Phytochemistry of ZSC
		2.3.1 Volatile Oils in the Leaves, Fruits, and Flowers of ZSC
		2.3.2 Phytochemicals Isolated from the Leaves of ZSC
		2.3.3 Phytochemicals Isolated from the Stem, Root, and Barks of ZSC
		2.3.4 Phytochemicals Isolated from the Fruits of ZSC
		2.3.5 Phytochemicals Isolated from the Seeds of ZSC
	2.4 In Vitro and In Vivo Pharmacological Uses
		2.4.1 Antimicrobial Activity of ZSC
		2.4.2 Antioxidant Activity of ZSC
		2.4.3 Antipyretic Effect of ZSC
		2.4.4 Antidiuretic Activity of ZSC
		2.4.5 Anticancer Activity of ZSC
		2.4.6 Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitory Effect of ZSC
		2.4.7 Antidiabetic Activity of ZSC
		2.4.8 Antidiarrheal Activity of ZSC
		2.4.9 Anti-Inflammatory Activity of ZSC
		2.4.10 CNS-Related Activity of ZSC
		2.4.11 Antinociceptive Activity of ZSC
		2.4.12 Anthelmintic Activity of ZSC
		2.4.13 Hepatoprotective Activity of ZSC
		2.4.14 Antiplasmodial Activity of ZSC
		2.4.15 ZSC in Skin Diseases
		2.4.16 Osteogenic Activity of ZSC
		2.4.17 Hypolipidemic Activity of ZSC
	2.5 Patents Granted to ZSC
	2.6 ZSC in Nanotechnology
	2.7 ZSC as an Adsorbent to Remove Manganese from Aqueous Solution
	2.8 ZSC Toxicity
	2.9 Conclusion and Future Directives
	References
3: Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Profile of Salvadora persica Linn
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Botanical Description
		3.2.1 Stem Bark
		3.2.2 Leaves
		3.2.3 Flowers
		3.2.4 Fruits and Seeds
	3.3 Edible Parts
	3.4 Taxonomical Classification
	3.5 Traditional Uses
	3.6 Pharmacological Activities
		3.6.1 Antimicrobial Activity
		3.6.2 Antiplasmodial and Anthelmintic Activity
		3.6.3 Release of Calcium and Chloride into Saliva
		3.6.4 Tick-Repellent Properties
		3.6.5 Anti-caries and Periodontal Potential
		3.6.6 Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Potential
		3.6.7 Enzyme Inhibitory Activity
		3.6.8 Antifertility Activity
		3.6.9 Anticonvulsant and Sedative Activity
		3.6.10 Antiulcer Activity
		3.6.11 Hypolipidemic and Hypoglycemic Activity
		3.6.12 Locomotor Activity
		3.6.13 Diuretic Activity
		3.6.14 Antipyretic Activity
		3.6.15 Cytotoxic and Anticancer Activity
		3.6.16 Antioxidant Activity
		3.6.17 Wound Healing Activity
		3.6.18 Anti-protozoan Activity/Anti-Eimerial Activity
		3.6.19 Antidepressant Activity
		3.6.20 Anti-osteoporosis Activity
	3.7 Phytochemistry of Salvadora persica Linn. Plant
	3.8 Patents Granted to S. persica Linn
	3.9 Conclusion
	References
4: Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, and Applications of Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi)
	4.1 Introduction
		4.1.1 Morphology
		4.1.2 Taxonomic Classification
		4.1.3 Cultivation
	4.2 Phytochemistry of Tulsi
		4.2.1 Chemical Constituents
		4.2.2 Essential Oil
	4.3 Ethnobotanical/Traditional Uses
	4.4 Pharmacological Potential
		4.4.1 Stress Resilience
		4.4.2 Anti-diabetic Potential
		4.4.3 Antifungal Activities
		4.4.4 Antihypertensive and Cardioprotective Activities
		4.4.5 Hepatoprotective Activity
		4.4.6 Antioxidant Activity
		4.4.7 Antifertility Activity
		4.4.8 Antiarthritic Activity
		4.4.9 Antiulcer Activity
		4.4.10 Anthelmintic Activity
		4.4.11 Anti-inflammatory Activity
		4.4.12 Analgesic Activity
		4.4.13 Antipyretic Activity
		4.4.14 Anticancer Activity
		4.4.15 Antiviral Activity
		4.4.16 Antimicrobial Activity
	4.5 Clinical Efficacy of Tulsi [Clinical Study]
	4.6 Nutritional Value
	4.7 Conclusion
	References
5: Nigella sativa: Its Ethnobotany, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacology
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Nigella sativa (Synonym in Various Languages)
	5.3 Nigella sativa (Morphology)
	5.4 Characteristics of the Seeds and Powder
	5.5 Nigella sativa (Scientific Classification)
	5.6 Cultivation and Collection
	5.7 Chemical Constituents
	5.8 Therapeutic Importance
		5.8.1 Antioxidant Activity
		5.8.2 Hepatoprotective Activity
		5.8.3 Anti-nephrotoxic Activity
		5.8.4 Anti-cancer Activity
		5.8.5 Anti-diabetic Activity
		5.8.6 Antimicrobial Activity
		5.8.7 Antiparasitic Activity
		5.8.8 Antimalarial
		5.8.9 Analgesic and Anti-inflammatory Activity
		5.8.10 Anti-nociceptive Effects
		5.8.11 Anti-ulcer Activity
		5.8.12 Anti-histaminic Action
		5.8.13 Effect on the Cardiovascular System
		5.8.14 Cardioprotective Effect Against Hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy)
		5.8.15 Anti-hyperlipidemic Effects
		5.8.16 Effect on the Gastrointestinal Tract
		5.8.17 Effect on the Respiratory System
		5.8.18 Effect on the Nervous System
		5.8.19 Effect on the Immune System
		5.8.20 Effect on the Genitourinary System
		5.8.21 Effect on the Reproductive System
		5.8.22 Effect on Blood
	5.9 Toxicological Report
	5.10 Therapeutic Enhancement of Thymoquinone in Nanoformulation
	5.11 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References
6: A Review on Ethnomedicinal, Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Activities of Rumex hastatus D. Don
	6.1 Introduction
		6.1.1 Rumex and Polygonaceae
		6.1.2 Rumex hastatus D. Don
		6.1.3 Review Methodology
	6.2 Ethnobotany
		6.2.1 Habitat and Edible Part
		6.2.2 Ecology
			6.2.2.1 Altitude
			6.2.2.2 Climate, Soil, pH and Lifespan
		6.2.3 Distribution
		6.2.4 Phenology
		6.2.5 Pollination
		6.2.6 Propagation
		6.2.7 Morphology and Description
	6.3 Ethnomedicinal Importance
	6.4 Nutritional Importance
	6.5 Contraindication
	6.6 Physicochemical Standardization
		6.6.1 Macroscopical Characters
	6.7 Phytochemistry
	6.8 Pharmacology
		6.8.1 Anti-Nociceptive
		6.8.2 Antipyretic
		6.8.3 Anti-Inflammatory
		6.8.4 Antioxidant and Antiradical
		6.8.5 Hepatic Protective Effect
		6.8.6 Anticholinesterase
		6.8.7 Anti-Tumour and Angiogenic Potential
		6.8.8 Cytotoxic Activity
		6.8.9 Antidiarrhoeal Activity
		6.8.10 Antimicrobial
			6.8.10.1 Antifungal
			6.8.10.2 Antibacterial Activity
		6.8.11 Antidiabetic Activity
	6.9 Conclusion
	References
7: Chemical Composition and Biological Uses of Crocus sativus L. (Saffron)
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Origin and History
	7.3 Morphology
	7.4 Classification
	7.5 Traditional Uses
		7.5.1 Phytochemistry of C. sativus
			7.5.1.1 Apocarotenoids and Their Derivative
			7.5.1.2 Monoterpenoids
			7.5.1.3 Flavonoids
			7.5.1.4 Flavone Derivatives
			7.5.1.5 Flavonone Derivatives
			7.5.1.6 C-Flavone Derivatives
			7.5.1.7 Anthocyanins
			7.5.1.8 Phenols and Their Derivatives
			7.5.1.9 Phytosterols
			7.5.1.10 Vitamins
			7.5.1.11 Nitrogen-Containing Compounds
			7.5.1.12 Furan Derivatives
			7.5.1.13 Triterpenoid Saponins
			7.5.1.14 Acetophenones and Anthraquinones
			7.5.1.15 Others
		7.5.2 Pharmacological Activities
			7.5.2.1 Antiparasitic and Antibacterial Activity
			7.5.2.2 Antioxidant Activity
			7.5.2.3 Hypotensive Activity
			7.5.2.4 Antidepressant Activity
			7.5.2.5 Anxiolytic
			7.5.2.6 Anticonvulsant
			7.5.2.7 Memory-Enhancing and Anti-Alzheimer´s Activity
			7.5.2.8 Antitumor Activity
			7.5.2.9 Cardiovascular Effect
			7.5.2.10 Antinociceptive and Anti-Inflammatory Activities
			7.5.2.11 Hypolipidemic and Hypoglycemic Activities
			7.5.2.12 Diuretic Activity
			7.5.2.13 Cytotoxic Activity
			7.5.2.14 Toxicity
		7.5.3 Standards and Criteria
			7.5.3.1 Collection Period
			7.5.3.2 Collection Method
			7.5.3.3 Drying Methods
			7.5.3.4 International Standards of Plant Material
			7.5.3.5 Food and Drug Administration Criteria
			7.5.3.6 Adulterants
			7.5.3.7 Purity Check
			7.5.3.8 Other Methods
		7.5.4 Commercialized Formulation
		7.5.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects
	References
8: Positive Health Benefits of Saponins from Edible Legumes: Phytochemistry and Pharmacology
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Structure and Biosynthesis
	8.3 Classification
		8.3.1 Triterpenoid Saponins
		8.3.2 Steroidal Saponins
	8.4 Phytochemistry
	8.5 Pharmacology
		8.5.1 Anti-Inflammatory Activity
		8.5.2 Antimicrobial Activity
		8.5.3 Hypoglycemic Activity
		8.5.4 Effect on Cholesterol Metabolism
		8.5.5 Effect on Cell Permeability
		8.5.6 Virucidal Activity
		8.5.7 Effects on Immune System
		8.5.8 Cytostatic Effects on Malignant Cells
		8.5.9 Effect on Protozoa
		8.5.10 Effect on Nervous System
		8.5.11 Other Effects
	8.6 Bioavailability
	8.7 Health Benefits
	8.8 Conclusion
	References
9: Taraxacum officinale: The Esculent Dandelion as Herbal Medicine
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Morphology
	9.3 Ancient Background
		9.3.1 Ethnomedicinal Importance
	9.4 Pharmacological Activities Reported for T. officinale
		9.4.1 Antioxidant Activity
		9.4.2 Diuretic Activity
		9.4.3 Hepatoprotective Effect
		9.4.4 Hypolipidemic Activity
		9.4.5 Cardiovascular Activity
		9.4.6 Probiotic Activity
		9.4.7 Neuroprotective Activity
		9.4.8 Antibacterial Activity
		9.4.9 Anti-Inflammatory Activity
		9.4.10 Antidiabetic Activity
		9.4.11 Antidepressant Activity
		9.4.12 Anti-Fatigue and Immunostimulatory Activity
		9.4.13 Anticancer Activity
	9.5 Phytochemistry of T. officinale
		9.5.1 Constituents of Dandelion Roots
		9.5.2 Constituents of T. officinale Leaves
		9.5.3 Constituents of T. officinale Flowers
	9.6 Conclusion
	References
10: Arctium lappa: A Review on Its Phytochemistry and Pharmacology
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Phytochemistry of A. lappa
		10.2.1 Lignans
		10.2.2 Fatty Acids and Esters
		10.2.3 Acetylenic Compounds
		10.2.4 Phytosterols
		10.2.5 Polysaccharides
		10.2.6 Derivatives of Caffeoylquinic Acid (Carboxylic Acids)
		10.2.7 Flavonoids
	10.3 Volatile Compounds
		10.3.1 Hydrocarbons
		10.3.2 Aldehydes
	10.4 Pharmcological Profile of A. lappa
		10.4.1 Anticancer Potential
		10.4.2 Inhibition of JAK-STAT Signaling
		10.4.3 Antidiabetic Activity
		10.4.4 Antimicrobial Activity
		10.4.5 Ulcerative Colitis
		10.4.6 Dermatological Effects of A. lappa
		10.4.7 Hepatoprotective and Gastroprotective Activity
		10.4.8 Clinical Trials
	10.5 Conclusion
	References
11: Marrubium vulgare L.: Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Profile
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Historical Background of M. vulgare
	11.3 Medical Importance of M. vulgare
	11.4 Taxonomy
	11.5 Phytochemistry of M. vulgare
		11.5.1 Diterpenoids
		11.5.2 Essential Oils Including Monoterpenes and Sesquiterpenes
		11.5.3 Flavonoids and Their Glycosides
		11.5.4 Phenylpropanoid and Phenylethanoid Glycosides
		11.5.5 Miscellaneous Compounds
	11.6 Pharmacological Properties of M. vulgare
		11.6.1 Hepatoprotective Property
			11.6.1.1 Effect of MEMV on Marker Enzyme in Serum
			11.6.1.2 Effect of MEMV on Albumin
		11.6.2 Antioxidant Activity
		11.6.3 Antiproliferative Activity
		11.6.4 Anti-inflammatory Activity
		11.6.5 Antidiabetic Activity
		11.6.6 Antimicrobial Activity
		11.6.7 Antihypertensive Activity
		11.6.8 Wound-Healing (Hemostatic) Activity
		11.6.9 As a Natural Pesticide
	11.7 Toxicity
	11.8 Conclusion
	References
12: Cichorium intybus: A Comprehensive Review on Its Pharmacological Activity and Phytochemistry
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Historical Background and Distribution
	12.3 Morphology
	12.4 Traditional Uses
	12.5 Pharmacological Activities
		12.5.1 Hepatoprotective Activity
		12.5.2 Anti-Inflammatory Activity
		12.5.3 Gastroprotective Activity
		12.5.4 Antidiabetic Activity
		12.5.5 Antimicrobial Activity
		12.5.6 Antioxidant Activity
		12.5.7 Antimalarial Activity
		12.5.8 Anthelmintic Activity
		12.5.9 Analgesic Activity
		12.5.10 Tumor Inhibitory Activity
		12.5.11 Antiparasitic Activity
		12.5.12 Renal Impairment
	12.6 Phytochemistry
		12.6.1 Phytochemistry of Root
		12.6.2 Phytochemistry of Flower
		12.6.3 Phytochemistry of Seed
		12.6.4 Phytochemistry of Stem
		12.6.5 Phytochemistry of Leaf
	References
13: Phytochemical and Pharmacological Properties of Picrorhiza kurroa
	13.1 Introduction
		13.1.1 Taxonomy
	13.2 Phytochemistry of P. kurroa
	13.3 Pharmacological Activities of P. kurroa (PK)
		13.3.1 Cardioprotective Effect of P. kurroa
		13.3.2 Antidiabetic Effect of P. kurroa
		13.3.3 Hepatoprotective Effect of P. kurroa
		13.3.4 Anticancer Effect of P. kurroa
		13.3.5 Immunomodulatory Effect of P. kurroa
		13.3.6 Antimicrobial Effect of P. kurroa
		13.3.7 Antimalarial Effect of P. kurroa
		13.3.8 Antiulcer Effect of P. kurroa
		13.3.9 Analgesic Activity of P. kurroa
		13.3.10 Antiallergic Effect of P. kurroa
		13.3.11 Antiasthmatic Effect of P. kurroa
		13.3.12 Anti-Inflammatory Effect of P. kurroa
		13.3.13 Antioxidant Activity of P. kurroa
		13.3.14 Anticonvulsant Activity of P. kurroa
		13.3.15 Nephroprotective Effect of P. kurroa
	13.4 Conclusion
	References
14: Lady´s Purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris L.): Current Perspective on Its Ethnopharmacological, Therapeutic Potential, and Phy...
	14.1 Introduction
		14.1.1 Scientific Classification
		14.1.2 Morphology
		14.1.3 Distribution (Geographical and Altitudinal)
		14.1.4 Habitat
		14.1.5 Traditional Uses
	14.2 Pharmacology Report
		14.2.1 Antimicrobial Activity
		14.2.2 Anticancer Activity
		14.2.3 Anti-Inflammatory Activity
		14.2.4 Effects on Smooth Muscles
		14.2.5 Infertility Effect
		14.2.6 Antioxidant Activity
		14.2.7 Cardiovascular Effects
		14.2.8 Hepatoprotective Activity
		14.2.9 Sedative Effects
		14.2.10 Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitor Activity
		14.2.11 Effects on Psoriasis and Multiple Sclerosis
	14.3 Phytochemistry Report
		14.3.1 Phenolics and Flavonoids
		14.3.2 Phytosterols
		14.3.3 Fatty Acids
		14.3.4 Organic Acids
		14.3.5 Amino Acids
		14.3.6 Total Crude Fiber and Total Mineral Contents
	14.4 Conclusion
	References
15: Ethnopharmacology, Phytochemistry, and Biological Activities of Achillea millefolium: A Comprehensive Review
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Medicinal Importance of A. millefolium
	15.3 Taxonomy
	15.4 History
	15.5 Phytochemistry of A. millefolium
		15.5.1 Essential Oils
		15.5.2 Phenols
		15.5.3 Flavonoids
		15.5.4 Sesquiterpenes
		15.5.5 Hydrocarbon Monoterpenes
		15.5.6 Oxygenated Monoterpenes
		15.5.7 Oxygenated Sesquiterpenes
		15.5.8 Sesquiterpene Hydrocarbons
	15.6 Pharmacological Activity of A. millefolium
		15.6.1 Anti-Inflammatory Activity
		15.6.2 Antioxidant Activity
		15.6.3 In Vitro Estrogenic Activity
		15.6.4 Antiulcer Activity
		15.6.5 Hypotensive Activity
		15.6.6 Antimicrobial Activity
		15.6.7 Anti-Spermatogenic Activity
	15.7 Toxicity and Interaction
	15.8 Conclusion
	References
16: A Review on Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Activities of Verbascum thapsus
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Historical Background of V. thapsus
	16.3 Botany
	16.4 Medicinal Importance of V. thapsus
		16.4.1 Antitumor Activity
		16.4.2 Cardiovascular Activity
		16.4.3 Anti-inflammatory Activity
		16.4.4 Hepatoprotective Activity
		16.4.5 Antibacterial Activity
		16.4.6 Treatment of Trichomonas vaginalis
		16.4.7 Antiviral Activity
		16.4.8 Nephroprotective Activity
		16.4.9 Anthelmintic Activity
		16.4.10 Analgesic Activity
	16.5 Phytochemistry
		16.5.1 Phenylethanoid Glycosides
		16.5.2 Iridoid Glycosides
		16.5.3 Triterpene Tetraglycosides
		16.5.4 Saponins
		16.5.5 Terpenes
		16.5.6 Flavonoids and Carotenoids
		16.5.7 Carbohydrates
	16.6 Toxicity Studies
	16.7 Conclusion
	References
17: Acorus calamus: A Review on Its Phytochemical and Pharmacological Profile
	17.1 Introduction
		17.1.1 Habit and Ecology
		17.1.2 Morphology
		17.1.3 History and Folklore
		17.1.4 Traditional Medicinal Uses
	17.2 Pharmacological Actions
		17.2.1 Antispasmodic Activity
		17.2.2 Anthelmintic Activity
		17.2.3 CNS Depressant Activity
		17.2.4 Antidiarrheal Activity
		17.2.5 Action on Respiratory System
		17.2.6 Action on Cardiovascular System (CVS)
		17.2.7 Anticonvulsant Activity
		17.2.8 Anticancer Activity
		17.2.9 Antibacterial Activity
		17.2.10 Antifungal Activity
		17.2.11 Antiviral Activity
		17.2.12 Anti-HIV Activity
		17.2.13 Antipyretic Activity
		17.2.14 Analgesic Activity
		17.2.15 Sedative Activity
		17.2.16 Antioxidant Activity
		17.2.17 Antidiabetic Activity
		17.2.18 Insecticidal Activity
	17.3 Phytochemistry
		17.3.1 Phenylpropanoids
		17.3.2 Sesquiterpenoids
		17.3.3 Monoterpene
		17.3.4 Xanthone Glycosides
		17.3.5 Triterpenoid Saponins
		17.3.6 Alkaloids
		17.3.7 Triterpene Glycoside
		17.3.8 Steroids/Sterols
		17.3.9 Flavones
	17.4 Conclusion
	References