Ecology of Harmful Algae

Contents......Page 9
Part A: Harmful Algae and Their Global Distribution......Page 27
1 An Introduction to Harmful Algae......Page 28
References......Page 32
2.1 Introduction......Page 33
2.2 Dinophyta (Dinoflagellates)......Page 34
2.3 Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae)......Page 38
2.5 Concluding Remarks......Page 41
References......Page 42
3.1 Biogeography and Species Concepts......Page 46
3.2 Biogeographical Distribution......Page 48
3.3 Distribution of Harmful Species......Page 49
References......Page 55
4.1 Introduction......Page 59
4.2 Phases of Phytoplankton Bloom Development and Life Cycles......Page 61
4.3 Environmental Factors versus Biological Factors Affecting Transition......Page 66
4.4 Status of Knowledge and Direction Needed......Page 67
References......Page 69
Part B: The Ecology of Major Harmful Algae Groups......Page 72
5.1 Introduction......Page 73
5.2 General Ecology......Page 74
5.3 Blooms, Including Toxic Outbreaks......Page 79
5.4 Human Influences......Page 80
5.5 Conceptual Frameworks to Advance Understanding......Page 81
References......Page 84
6.2 Class Prymnesiophyceae (Division Haptophyta)......Page 87
6.3 Class Raphidophyceae (Division Heterokontophyta)......Page 92
References......Page 97
7.1 Introduction......Page 100
7.2 Toxin-Producing Diatoms, Genus Pseudo-nitzschia......Page 101
7.3 Domoic Acid in the Marine Food Web......Page 102
7.4 Physiological Ecology of Pseudo-nitzschia spp......Page 103
7.5 Molecular Tools for Studying Pseudo-nitzschia......Page 105
7.6 Conclusions and Directions for Future Research......Page 106
References......Page 107
8.1 Introduction......Page 113
8.2 Environmental Factors Controlling CyanoHABs......Page 115
8.3 CyanoHAB Interactions with Micro/Macroorganisms......Page 122
8.4 CyanoHAB Management......Page 124
References......Page 125
9.1 Background......Page 128
9.2 Nutrients and Physical Factors......Page 130
9.3 Sources of Cell Mortality......Page 134
References......Page 137
Part C: The Ecology and Physiology of Harmful Algae......Page 141
10.1 Introduction......Page 142
10.2 Physical Constraints: From Diffusion to Advection......Page 143
10.3 Life-Forms......Page 144
10.4 Algal Communities......Page 145
10.5 Retention and Transport......Page 146
References......Page 151
11.1 Introduction......Page 154
11.2 Ecological Interpretation of In Situ Growth Rate Measurements......Page 155
11.3 In Situ Growth Rates; Variation Among Taxonomic Groups......Page 158
11.4 Are Harmful Algal Species r- or K-Strategists?......Page 162
References......Page 164
12.1 Introduction......Page 168
12.2 Mortality of HABs......Page 171
12.3 Death Due to HABs......Page 172
12.4 Mechanisms to Avoid Cell Mortality......Page 173
12.5 Ecological Implications......Page 174
References......Page 175
13.1 Introduction and Terminology......Page 178
13.2 Osmotrophy Pathways and Methods to Explore Them......Page 179
13.3 Cellular Costs and Benefits of Osmotrophy......Page 182
13.4 Ecological Significance of Osmotrophy......Page 183
13.5 A Comment on Evolutionary Aspects of Osmotrophy......Page 185
References......Page 186
14.1 Introduction......Page 191
14.2 Phagotrophy and its Advantages......Page 194
14.3 Relationship of Phagotrophy to Toxicity......Page 196
14.4 Significance of Phagotrophy......Page 198
References......Page 199
15.2 Approaches to Demonstrate/Study Allelopathy – Pitfalls and Strength/Weaknesses of Experimental Approaches......Page 202
15.3 Which Toxins are Involved in the Allelopathic Effects?......Page 205
15.4 Influence of Abiotic and Biotic Factors on Allelopathy......Page 207
15.5 Ecological Significance of Allelopathy in Marine Ecosystems......Page 211
References......Page 212
16.1 Introduction......Page 215
16.2 Chemistry and Availability of Metals......Page 216
16.3 Trace Metals as Limiting Nutrients......Page 217
16.4 Trace Metal Toxicity......Page 219
16.5 Trace Metal Effects on HABs: Domoic Acid Production in Pseudo-nitzschia......Page 220
16.6 Trace Metal Effects on Other HAB Species......Page 222
References......Page 223
17.1 Introduction......Page 227
17.2 Phycotoxin Biosynthesis......Page 228
17.3 Growth and Regulation of Toxin Production......Page 229
17.4 Toxin Production Through the Cell Cycle......Page 231
17.5 Molecular Approaches to Growth and Toxin Expression......Page 232
17.6 Current and Future Perspectives......Page 235
References......Page 238
18.2 Growth Stage and Toxin Production......Page 240
18.3 Physical Factors Influencing Toxin Content......Page 241
18.4 Inorganic Nutrients and Toxin Content......Page 242
18.5 Organic Matter and Toxin Content......Page 248
18.6 Conclusions......Page 249
References......Page 250
19.1 Introduction......Page 253
19.2 Diversity of Algal-Associated Bacteria......Page 254
19.3 Bacterial Influences on Algal Growth, Metabolism, and Toxins......Page 257
19.4 Potential Implications of Interactions Among Bacteria......Page 260
19.5 Future Directions/Research Needs/Critical Questions......Page 261
References......Page 262
Part D: Harmful Algae and the Food Web......Page 266
20.1 Introduction......Page 267
20.2 Planktonic Grazers......Page 268
20.4 Selective Grazing and Feeding Deterrence by Harmful Algae......Page 271
20.5 Impact of Zooplankton Grazing on Formation and Termination of HA Blooms......Page 272
20.6 Conclusions......Page 273
References......Page 274
21.2 Viruses......Page 279
21.3 Algicidal Bacteria......Page 281
21.4 Parasitic Fungi......Page 283
21.5 Parasitic Protists......Page 284
21.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives......Page 287
References......Page 288
22.2 Bacteria......Page 291
22.3 Zooplankton......Page 293
22.4 Bivalves......Page 294
22.5 Benthic Invertebrates (Non-Bivalves)......Page 295
22.6 Fishes......Page 296
22.7 Seabirds and Marine Mammals......Page 297
22.8 Summary and Conclusions......Page 298
References......Page 301
Part E: Studying and Mitigating Harmful Algae: New Approaches......Page 304
23.2 Identifying Life Cycle Stages Using Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)......Page 305
23.3 Nuclear Staining to Determine Ploidy and Growth Rates......Page 307
23.4 Genomic Approaches to Identifying Mitotic and Meiotic Life Cycle Stages......Page 308
23.6 Future Application of Reverse Transcriptase Assays and DNA Microarrays in Life Cycle Studies......Page 311
References......Page 313
24.1 Introduction......Page 316
24.3 Fluorescent in Situ Hybridization (FISH) for Identifying Intact Cells......Page 317
24.4 Detecting Many Species Simultaneously Using DNA Probe Arrays......Page 321
24.5 Conclusions......Page 325
References......Page 326
25.1 Introduction......Page 331
25.2 Mitigation Strategies and Control of HABs......Page 332
References......Page 339
Part F: Human Impact on Harmful Algae and Harmful Algae Impact on Human Activity......Page 343
26.2 Global Trends in Population, Agricultural Fertilizer Usage and Implications for Export to Coastal Waters......Page 344
26.3 Nutrient Limitation versus Eutrophication: Basic Conceptual Framework......Page 346
26.4 Nutrient Loading, Nutrient Composition, and HABs......Page 347
26.5 Factors Complicating the Relationship Between Eutrophication and HABs......Page 350
26.6 Conclusions......Page 353
References......Page 354
27.1 Introduction......Page 358
27.2 \"Top-down\" Predators......Page 360
27.3 Case Studies......Page 362
27.4 Conclusions......Page 365
References......Page 366
28.1 Introduction......Page 370
28.2 Evidence from the Past......Page 372
28.3 Results from Plankton Records......Page 373
28.4 Results from the Sedimentary Record of Dinoflagellate Cysts......Page 375
28.5 Conclusions......Page 378
References......Page 379
29.1 Potential Transport Vectors for Microalgae......Page 382
29.2 Vector Surveys for Microalgae......Page 383
29.3 Evidence for Successful Establishment of Non-Indigenous Microalgae......Page 384
29.4 Management Options to Reduce Risk of Introductions......Page 386
References......Page 391
30.1 Introduction......Page 394
30.3 Economic Concerns......Page 395
30.4 Why Measure Economic Losses?......Page 396
30.5 Economic Losses......Page 397
30.6 Economic Impacts......Page 400
30.7 Estimates of National Economic Effects......Page 401
30.8 Conclusions......Page 404
References......Page 405
A......Page 406
C......Page 407
D......Page 408
G......Page 409
H......Page 410
M......Page 411
O......Page 412
P......Page 413
S......Page 414
V......Page 415
Z......Page 416