Ecology and Management of Forest Soils, Fourth Edition

Ecology and Management of Forest Soils......Page 1
Contents......Page 7
Preface......Page 9
Acknowledgments......Page 11
In Memoriam......Page 13
PART I INTRODUCTION TO FOREST SOILS......Page 15
OVERVIEW......Page 17
FOREST SOILS DIFFER INMANYWAYS FROM CULTIVATED SOILS......Page 18
FOREST SOIL SCIENCE IS AS OLD AS SOIL SCIENCE ITSELF......Page 20
SOILS COMMONLY DIFFER AS MUCH WITHIN REGIONS AS AROUND THE GLOBE......Page 22
TROPICAL FORESTS ARE DIVERSE AND OCCUR ON A DIVERSE RANGE OF SOILS......Page 25
RAINFORESTS HAVE NO PROLONGED DRY SEASON......Page 26
MONSOON FORESTS HAVE SEASONAL PERIODS OF RAIN AND OF DROUGHT......Page 28
PLANTATION FORESTRY IS EXTENSIVE THROUGHOUT THE TROPICS......Page 29
TEMPERATE RAINFORESTS ARE AMONG THE LARGEST FORESTS IN THE WORLD......Page 30
TEMPERATE MIXED FORESTS INCLUDE CONIFERS AND HARDWOODS......Page 31
TEMPERATE MONTANE CONIFER FORESTS ENDURE COLD, SNOWY WINTERS......Page 32
BOREAL FORESTS SPAN VAST AREAS......Page 33
PART II COMPOSITION OF FOREST SOILS......Page 35
OVERVIEW......Page 37
PEDOGENIC PROCESSES OPERATE SIMULTANEOUSLY AT VARYING RATES......Page 38
EXTERNAL FACTORS GUIDE SOIL FORMATION......Page 39
SILICATES ARE THE DOMINANT SOILFORMING MINERALS......Page 40
CLAY MINERALS ARE SECONDARY ALUMINO-SILICATES......Page 43
CLIMATE IS A MAJOR DRIVER OF MINERAL WEATHERING......Page 47
SOILS DEVELOP ACROSS TOPOGRAPHY OVER TIME......Page 49
VEGETATION AND SOILS DEVELOP TOGETHER, BUT AT DIFFERENT RATES......Page 50
SOIL PROPERTIES INFLUENCE VEGETATION DEVELOPMENT......Page 51
OVERVIEW......Page 53
FOREST SOIL PROFILES TYPICALLY BEGIN WITH AN O HORIZON......Page 54
O HORIZONS HAVE A DISTINCTIVE STRUCTURE......Page 55
MANY O HORIZON CLASSIFICATIONS HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED: ARE THEY USEFUL?......Page 56
ORGANICMATTERISAVITALPARTOF MINERAL HORIZONS TOO......Page 58
CHARCOALCANALSOBEIMPORTANT IN FOREST SOILS......Page 60
SOIL ORGANIC MATTER PERFORMS MANY FUNCTIONS......Page 61
THE CHEMISTRY OF O HORIZONS GOES BEYOND CARBON......Page 62
WHY DOES ORGANIC MATTER ACCUMULATE IN SOILS?......Page 64
IS THERE A LIMIT TO HOW MUCH SOIL ORGANIC MATTER CAN ACCUMULATE IN FOREST SOILS?......Page 66
ORGANIC MATTER ENTERS SOILS FROM ABOVE AND FROM WITHIN......Page 67
SOIL ORGANIC MATTER SHOWS STRONG PATTERNS ACROSS LANDSCAPES......Page 69
TROPICAL SOILS HAVE GREATER SOIL ORGANIC MATTER THAN TEMPERATE AND BOREAL SOILS......Page 70
OVERVIEW......Page 72
MINERALS ARE PLACED IN THREE SIZE CLASSES, COMPRISING SOIL TEXTURE......Page 73
TEXTURE INFLUENCES TREE GROWTH......Page 74
BULK DENSITY ACCOUNTS FOR THE COMPOSITION OF MINERALS, ORGANICS, AND PORE SPACE......Page 75
LIFE IN THE SOIL DEPENDS ON THE SOIL ATMOSPHERE......Page 77
SOIL COLOR MAY BE OBVIOUS, INDICATING SUBTLE AND OBVIOUS SOIL CONDITIONS......Page 78
SOIL TEMPERATURE INFLUENCES BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC PROCESS RATES......Page 79
SOIL WATER IS PART OF THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE......Page 82
SEVERAL FACTORS AFFECT INFILTRATION AND LOSSES OF WATER......Page 84
TREES MAY GET WATER FROM THE CAPILLARY FRINGE......Page 86
PHYSICS IN A LANDSCAPE CONTEXT CAN DETERMINE SOIL CHEMISTRY......Page 87
PART III LIFE AND CHEMISTRY IN FOREST SOILS......Page 89
THE SINGLE MOST IMPORTANT THING TO COMMUNICATE ABOUT SOILS......Page 91
LIVING SOIL HAS THREE FUNDAMENTAL FEATURES......Page 92
ROOT SYSTEMS HAVE CHARACTERISTIC FORMS AND ENORMOUS EXTENTS......Page 93
ROOTS PENETRATE MORE DEEPLY INTO SOILS THAN MOST INVESTIGATIONS SAMPLE......Page 95
SOIL CONDITIONS ALTER ROOT GROWTH......Page 96
ROOTS CAN SHAPE THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL......Page 98
TWO CLASSES OF MYCORRHIZAE ARE PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT FOR TREES......Page 99
SOILFACTORSAFFECTMYCORRHIZAL DEVELOPMENT......Page 102
MYCORRHIZAE BENEFIT TREES LARGELY BY INCREASING SURFACE AREA FOR ABSORBING WATER AND NUTRIENTS......Page 103
CONNECTIONS MAY LINK MULTIPLE TREES THROUGH A COMMON MYCORRHIZAL NETWORK......Page 104
BACTERIA AND ARCHAEA ARE SMALL, BUT WITH HUGE POPULATIONS......Page 105
FUNGI ARE PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT IN ACIDIC FOREST SOILS......Page 107
THE MYCORRHIZOSPHERE IS A HOTSPOT OF MICROBIAL ACTIVITY......Page 108
SOIL FAUNA PLAY VITAL ROLES......Page 109
MESOFAUNA FRAGMENT LITTER AND PROMOTE SOIL STRUCTURE......Page 110
ARTHROPODS COMPRISE A BROAD GROUP OF SOIL ANIMALS......Page 111
WORMS MAY BE THE MOST IMPORTANT SOIL ANIMALS......Page 112
OVERVIEW......Page 113
ENERGY FLOWS WITH ELECTRONS......Page 114
NUTRIENT CYCLES INVOLVE POOLS AND FLUXES......Page 115
ANNUAL NUTRIENT CYCLING IS GREATER THAN ANNUAL INPUTS......Page 116
LITTER DECAYS LIKE RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL, BUT FOR DIFFERENT REASONS......Page 117
LITTERFALL AND ROOT DEATH ARE MAJOR PATHWAYS OF NUTRIENT RETURN TO SOILS......Page 121
TREES ADJUST TO NUTRIENT LIMITATIONS......Page 122
INTERNAL RECYCLING MAY INCREASE AS NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY INCREASES......Page 123
NUTRIENT INPUTS HAVE THREE MAJOR SOURCES......Page 124
CYCLES DIFFER GREATLY AMONG NUTRIENT ELEMENTS......Page 129
CARBON FLOWS THROUGH FORESTS......Page 132
HYDROGEN ION BUDGETS INTEGRATE BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES......Page 133
THE NITROGEN CYCLE DOMINATES FOREST NUTRITION......Page 137
PHOSPHORUS CYCLING IS CONTROLLED BY BOTH BIOTIC AND GEOCHEMICAL PROCESSES......Page 142
POTASSIUM IS THE MOST MOBILE SOIL NUTRIENT......Page 145
SULFUR CYCLING IS MORE COMPLICATED THAN NITROGEN CYCLING......Page 146
SMALL QUANTITIES OF MICRONUTRIENTS PLAY LARGE ROLES......Page 148
THREE RULES OF BIOGEOCHEMISTRY......Page 149
AS IN ALL ACCOUNTING, SCALE IS AN IMPORTANT ISSUE FOR NUTRIENT BUDGETS......Page 150
MAJOR SOIL ANIONS INCLUDE CHLORIDE, SULFATE, BICARBONATE, AND SOMETIMES NITRATE......Page 152
MAJOR SOIL CATIONS INCLUDE SODIUM, POTASSIUM, CALCIUM, MAGNESIUM, AND SOMETIMES ALUMINUM......Page 153
SOIL SOLUTIONS ALSO CONTAIN SILICIC ACID, DISSOLVED ORGANIC CHEMICALS, AND GASES......Page 154
THE SOLID PHASE OF THE SOIL HAS FOUR MAJOR COMPONENTS......Page 155
CATION EXCHANGE IS A REVERSIBLE, ELECTROSTATIC SORPTION......Page 157
CATION VALANCE AND HYDRATED RADIUS EXPLAIN THE SELECTIVITY OF THE EXCHANGE COMPLEX......Page 158
SOIL ACIDITY INVOLVES ACID?BASE REACTIONS BETWEEN SOLID AND SOLUTION PHASES......Page 159
THE PH OF SOIL SOLUTIONS IS BUFFERED BY THE SOLID PHASES......Page 160
COMPARISONS OF TITRATION CURVES CAN EXPLAIN WHY PH DIFFERS AMONG SOILS......Page 163
PHOSPHATE AND SULFATE CONCENTRATIONS DEPEND ON SPECIFIC ADSORPTION......Page 164
NUTRIENT SUPPLY AND UPTAKE......Page 165
Nutrient uptake also depends on uptake kinetics......Page 167
SOIL SOLUTIONS AND PLANT UPTAKE ARE LINKED TO ECOSYSTEM BIOGEOCHEMISTRY......Page 168
PART IV MEASURING FOREST SOILS......Page 171
VARIATION OVER TIMEANDSPACE IS FUNDAMENTAL IN FOREST SOILS......Page 173
SOILS ARE GEOGRAPHIC ENTITIES......Page 174
POWERFUL SAMPLING DESIGNS ARE FUNDAMENTAL TO USEFUL SOIL MEASUREMENTS......Page 175
PSEUDOREPLICATION IS NO REPLICATION AT ALL FOR THE POPULATION OF INFERENCE......Page 176
THREE ADVANCES HAVE REVOLUTIONIZED SOIL GEOGRAPHY......Page 177
GEOSTATISTICS CHARACTERIZE SOIL PATTERNS......Page 178
KRIGING INTERPOLATES THE SPACE BETWEEN SAMPLES......Page 179
THE GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM GPS GUIDES SAMPLING, MAPPING, AND MANAGEMENT......Page 180
SOILSARECLASSEDINTOGROUPSON LANDSCAPES FOR MANAGEMENT......Page 181
FOREST MANAGEMENT BEGINS WITH THE APPLICATION OF SOIL CLASSIFICATION TO LANDSCAPES......Page 187
MOST OF WHAT MATTERS ABOUT SOILS IS HIDDEN FROM VIEW......Page 189
SOIL WATER CONTENT SHOWS IMPORTANT PATTERNS......Page 193
WATER RELEASE CURVES RELATE SOIL WATER CONTENT WITH WATER POTENTIAL......Page 195
SOIL ORGANIC MATTER IS AT THE HEART OF SOIL STRUCTURE AND BIOLOGY......Page 196
pH INDEXES THE ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY OF SOILS......Page 197
SOIL NITROGEN IS TIGHTLY RELATED TO SOIL ORGANIC MATTER......Page 198
PHOSPHORUS SUPPLY RATES ARE MORE COMPLICATED THAN NITROGEN......Page 199
CATION SUPPLIES MAY OR MAY NOT RELATE TO EXCHANGEABLE POOLS......Page 200
THE BIOTA OF SOILS IS EVEN RICHER THAN THE CHEMISTRY......Page 201
PART V DYNAMICS OF FOREST SOILS......Page 203
OVERVIEW......Page 205
TREE SPECIES DIFFER SUBSTANTIALLY IN GROWTH RATES AND ALLOCATION ABOVE GROUND AND BELOW GROUND......Page 207
COMMON GARDEN EXPERIMENTS SHARESOMECOMMONLIMITATIONS......Page 209
TREE SPECIES INFLUENCE SOIL ANIMAL COMMUNITIES......Page 214
CHANGES IN SOILS DO NOT LAST FOREVER......Page 216
NITROGEN-FIXING SPECIES REDUCEN FROMTHEATMOSPHEREANDENRICH SOILS......Page 217
15NLABELING SHOWSHIGH RATES OF N FIXATION FOR LEUCAENA AND CASUARINA......Page 218
NITROGEN ACCRETION AND CHRONOSEQUENCES CAN DETECT MODERATE AND LARGE N FIXATION RATES......Page 219
ACETYLENE REDUCTION ASSAYS ESTIMATE CURRENT RATES OF N FIXATION......Page 220
N-FIXING PLANTS ALSO AFFECT CYCLES OF OTHER NUTRIENTS......Page 222
NITROGEN-FIXING SPECIES ALTER SOIL CARBON IN TWO WAYS......Page 223
WHEN DOES FIXED NITROGEN SHOW UP IN OTHER VEGETATION?......Page 225
SOIL MANAGEMENT PLAYS A MAJOR ROLE IN INTENSIVE PLANTATION FORESTRY......Page 227
PRIOR LAND USES CAN LEAVE LEGACIES IN SOILS......Page 228
LAND CLEARING CAN LOWER SOIL PRODUCTIVITY......Page 229
SCARIFICATION IS A MEANS OF EXPOSING MINERAL SOIL......Page 230
CULTIVATION INCREASES SURVIVAL AND EARLY GROWTH OF SEEDLINGS......Page 231
EXTREME SITES MAY REQUIRE INTENSIVE SOIL MANAGEMENT......Page 233
DRY, SANDY SOILS POSE SPECIAL PROBLEMS......Page 234
SEASONALLY FLOODED SOILS PRESENT UNIQUE PROBLEMS......Page 235
GELISOLS PRESENT UNIQUE CHALLENGES......Page 237
TURNING MINE SPOIL INTO SOIL IS A LONG-TERM CHALLENGE......Page 238
NURSERY SITE SELECTION IS IMPORTANT......Page 240
SOIL FERTILITY AND ACIDITY MANAGEMENT ARE CRUCIAL TO NURSERY SUCCESS......Page 241
OTHER ORGANIC ADDITIONS ARE GENERALLY NECESSARY......Page 243
A FERTILIZATION PROGRAM IS ESSENTIAL TO EXCELLENT NURSERY STOCK PRODUCTION......Page 244
FERTILIZATION IS A TWO-STEP PROCESS......Page 245
TREE CONDITIONING FOR TRANSPLANTING IMPROVES SURVIVAL AND GROWTH......Page 246
BIOCIDES PROTECT SEEDLINGS BUT ALTER NURSERY SOIL PROCESSES......Page 247
MOST FORESTS BURN......Page 249
FIRE PHYSICS LARGELY DETERMINE FIRE IMPACTS ON FOREST SOILS......Page 250
HEAT ALTERS THE ORGANIC MATTER REMAINING IN SOILS......Page 251
NITROGEN LOSSES ARE PRIMARILY FROM OXIDATION NOT VOLATILIZATION......Page 252
EROSION USUALLY INCREASES AFTER FIRE......Page 256
MAJOR EROSION EVENTS MAY BE VITAL TO HEALTHY STREAMS AND RIPARIAN ECOSYSTEMS......Page 258
FIRES MAY OR MAY NOT DECREASE WATER INFILTRATION INTO SOILS......Page 259
ASH MAY CONTAIN LARGE QUANTITIES OF NUTRIENTS......Page 260
DECOMPOSITION AND MICROBIAL ACTIVITY CHANGE AFTER FIRE......Page 261
SOIL ACIDITY DECLINES AND PH RISES AFTER FIRE......Page 262
BASE CATIONS MAY INCREASE AFTER FIRE......Page 263
NITROGEN AVAILABILITY ALSO INCREASES AFTER FIRE......Page 264
LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF FIREON SOIL PRODUCTIVITY REMAIN UNCERTAIN......Page 265
NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS ARE THE MOST COMMON LIMITING NUTRIENTS......Page 268
ASSESSMENTS OF NUTRIENT LIMITATIONS REQUIRES A CHOICE OF RESPONSE VARIABLE......Page 269
SEVERE NUTRIENT LIMITATIONS CAN BE DIAGNOSED VISUALLY......Page 270
MAJOR DEFICIENCIES OFTEN SHOW UP IN FOLIAR CONCENTRATIONS OF NUTRIENTS......Page 271
RATIOS OF NUTRIENT CONCENTRATIONS MAY BE MORE INFORMATIVE THAN CONCENTRATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL ELEMENTS......Page 272
A MORE ACTIVE APPROACH: ASK A TREE WHICH NUTRIENTS LIMIT GROWTH......Page 273
VECTOR ANALYSIS MAY IDENTIFY LIMITING NUTRIENTS IN CONIFERS WITHIN A SINGLE GROWING SEASON......Page 274
FIELD TRIALS ARE NECESSARY TO MOVE FROM DIAGNOSIS TO RECOMMENDED TREATMENTS......Page 275
OPERATIONAL FERTILIZATION AROUND THE WORLD......Page 276
RATE OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION MAYBEMOREIMPORTANT THAN THE TOTAL AMOUNT......Page 278
FERTILIZATION INCREASES NET PRIMARY PRODUCTION AND PARTITIONING TO WOOD......Page 279
ARE FERTILIZED STANDS MORE SUSCEPTIBLE TO DROUGHT THAN UNFERTILIZED STANDS?......Page 280
NITROGEN FERTILIZERS ARE SYNTHESIZED USING NATURAL GAS......Page 281
PHOSPHATE FERTILIZERS ARE MINED......Page 282
RAISING SOIL pH REQUIRES VERY LARGE AMOUNTS OF LIME......Page 283
Where did the missing fertilizer go?......Page 284
Why doesn’t more fertilizer get into the trees?......Page 285
FERTILIZER RESPONSE DIFFERS AMONG GENOTYPES AND SPECIES......Page 286
FERTILIZATION MAY OR MAY NOT INCREASE SOIL ORGANIC MATTER......Page 287
FERTILIZATION ISANINVESTMENT OF ENERGY AS WELL AS MONEY......Page 289
EDDY FLUX SYSTEMS MEASURE NET CHANGES IN THE C CONTENT OF FORESTS WITH GREAT PRECISION......Page 290
TOTAL BELOWGROUND CARBON ALLOCATION TBCA IS WHAT TREES SEND TO ROOTS......Page 292
SOIL CARBON STORES MAY CHANGE WHEN TREES INVADE GRASSLANDS......Page 293
REFORESTATION AFTER PASTURE ABANDONMENT MAY OR MAY NOT INCREASE SOIL C STORAGE......Page 294
REFORESTATION AFTER PLOWED AGRICULTURE MAY ALSO SHOW LITTLE CHANGE IN SOIL C STORAGE......Page 296
REPEATED ROTATIONS OF PLANTATION FORESTS MAY CHANGE SOIL C STORAGE......Page 298
RISING TEMPERATURES MAY INCREASE TREE GROWTH IN BOREAL AND TEMPERATE FORESTS......Page 299
WHAT WILL BE THE EFFECT OF RISING TEMPERATURESONSOIL C STORAGE?......Page 300
SIMPLE ANNUAL FLUXES MAY BE OVERWHELMED BY EPISODIC FLUXES......Page 301
PART VI THINKING PRODUCTIVELY ABOUT FOREST SOILS......Page 303
OVERVIEW......Page 305
THERE ARE THREE EASY WAYS TO BE WRONG......Page 306
FORMAL APPROACHES TO DECISION ANALYSIS CAN MAKE THE BEST USE OF INFORMATION......Page 308
BREAKEVEN ANALYSIS IS THE SIMPLEST APPROACH......Page 310
DECISION TREES IDENTIFY CHOICES, PROBABILITIES, AND OUTCOMES......Page 311
FERTILIZATION ENTAILS TWO KINDS OF RISK......Page 312
CHRONOSEQUENCES TRACE PATTERNS IN SPACE TO MAKE INFERENCES ABOUT TIME......Page 313
SPATIAL PATTERNS CAN BE USED TO GAIN INSIGHTS ON OTHER SOILFORMING FACTORS......Page 315
SYSTEMATIC REVIEWS ARE FORMAL SOURCES FOR THE BEST AVAILABLE INFORMATION......Page 316
POCKET SCIENCE WONT GET YOU TO THE MOON, BUT ITS AN EVEN BETTER INVESTMENT......Page 317
References......Page 319
Index......Page 357