Ecology : concepts & applications

Cover
Ecology: Concepts & Applications
About the Authors
Dedication
Brief Contents
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1: Introduction to Ecology: Historical Foundations and Developing Frontiers
	Concepts
	1.1: Overview of Ecology
		Concept 1.1 Review
	1.2: Sampling Ecological Research
		Climatic and Ecological Change: Past and Future
		Concept 1.2 Review
	Applications: Ecology Can Inform Environmental Law and Policy
Section I: Natural History and Evolution
	Chapter 2: Life on Land
		Concepts
			Terrestrial Biomes and the Importance of Plants
		2.1: Large-Scale Patterns of Climatic Variation
			Temperature, Atmospheric Circulation, and Precipitation
			Climate Diagrams
			Concept 2.1 Review
		2.2: Other Factors That Shape Terrestrial Biomes
			Concept 2.2 Review
		2.3: Natural History and Geography of Biomes
			Tropical Rain Forest
			Tropical Dry Forest
			Tropical Savanna
			Desert
			Woodland and Shrubland
			Temperate Grassland
			Temperate Forest
			Boreal Forest
			Tundra
			Mountains: A Diversity of Biomes
			Concept 2.3 Review
		Applications: Finer Scale Climatic Variation over Time and Space
	Chapter 3: Life in Water
		Concepts
			Aquatic Biomes and How They Differ
		3.1: Water Cycling
			The Hydrologic Cycle
			The Effects of Wind and Temperature
			Concept 3.1 Review
		3.2: The Natural History of Aquatic Environments
			The Oceans
			Life in Shallow Marine Waters: Kelp Forests and Coral Gardens
			Marine Shores: Life Between High and Low Tides
			Transitional Environments: Estuaries, Salt Marshes, Mangrove Forests, and Freshwater Wetlands
			Rivers and Streams: Life Blood and Pulse of the Land
			Lakes: Small Seas
			Concept 3.2 Review
		Applications: Biological IntegrityÑAssessing the Health of Aquatic Systems
			Number of Species and Species Composition
			Trophic Composition
			Fish Abundance and Condition
			A Test
	Chapter 4: Population Genetics and Natural Selection
		Concepts
		4.1: Variation Within Populations
			Variation in a Widely Distributed Plant
			Variation in Alpine Fish Populations
			Concept 4.1 Review
		4.2: Hardy-Weinberg Principle
			Calculating Gene Frequencies
			Concept 4.2 Review
		4.3: The Process of Natural Selection
			Stabilizing Selection
			Directional Selection
			Disruptive Selection
			Concept 4.3 Review
		4.4: Evolution by Natural Selection
			Heritability: Essential for Evolution
			Directional Selection: Adaptation by Soapberry Bugs to New Host Plants
			Concept 4.4 Review
		4.5: Change due to Chance
			Evidence of Genetic Drift in Island Crickets
			Genetic Diversity and Butterfly Extinctions
			Concept 4.5 Review
		Applications: Evolution and Agriculture
			Evolution of Herbicide Resistance in Weeds
Section II: Adaptations to the Environment
	Chapter 5: Temperature Relations
		Concepts
		5.1: Microclimates
			Altitude
			Aspect
			Vegetation
			Color of the Ground
			Presence of Boulders and Burrows
			Aquatic Temperatures
			Concept 5.1 Review
		5.2: Evolutionary Trade-Offs
			The Principle of Allocation
			Concept 5.2 Review
		5.3: Temperature and Performance of Organisms
			Extreme Temperatures and Photosynthesis
			Temperature and Microbial Activity
			Concept 5.3 Review
		5.4: Regulating Body Temperature
			Balancing Heat Gain Against Heat Loss
			Temperature Regulation by Plants
			Temperature Regulation by Ectothermic Animals
			Temperature Regulation by Endothermic Animals
			Temperature Regulation by Thermogenic Plants
			Concept 5.4 Review
		5.5: Surviving Extreme Temperatures
			Inactivity
			Reducing Metabolic Rate
			Hibernation by a Tropical Species
			Concept 5.5 Review
		Applications: Local Extinction of a Land Snail in an Urban Heat Island
	Chapter 6: Water Relations
		Concepts
		6.1: Water Availability
			Water Content of Air
			Water Movement in Aquatic Environments
			Water Movement Between Soils and Plants
			Concept 6.1 Review
		6.2: Water Regulation on Land
			Water Acquisition by Animals
			Water Acquisition by Plants
			Water Conservation by Plants and Animals
			Dissimilar Organisms with Similar Approaches to Desert Life
			Two Arthropods with Opposite Approaches to Desert Life
			Concept 6.2 Review
		6.3: Water and Salt Balance in Aquatic Environments
			Marine Fish and Invertebrates
			Freshwater Fish and Invertebrates
			Concept 6.3 Review
		Applications: Using Stable Isotopes to Study Water Uptake by Plants
			Stable Isotope Analysis
			Using Stable Isotopes to Identify Plant Water Sources
	Chapter 7: Energy and Nutrient Relations
		Concepts
		7.1: Photosynthetic Autotrophs
			The Solar-Powered Biosphere
			Concept 7.1 Review
		7.2: Chemosynthetic Autotrophs
			Concept 7.2 Review
		7.3: Heterotrophs
			Chemical Composition and Nutrient Requirements
			Concept 7.3 Review
		7.4: Energy Limitation
			Photon Flux and Photosynthetic Response Curves
			Food Density and Animal Functional Response
			Concept 7.4 Review
		7.5: Optimal Foraging Theory
			Testing Optimal Foraging Theory
			Optimal Foraging by Plants
			Concept 7.5 Review
		Applications: BioremediationÑUsing the Trophic Diversity of Bacteria to Solve Environmental Problems
			Leaking Underground Storage Tanks
			Cyanide and Nitrates in Mine Spoils
	Chapter 8: Social Relations
		Concepts
		8.1: Mate Choice versus Predation
			Mate Choice and Sexual Selection in Guppies
			Concept 8.1 Review
		8.2: Mate Choice and Resource Provisioning
			Concept 8.2 Review
		8.3: Nonrandom Mating in a Plant Population
			Concept 8.3 Review
		8.4: Sociality
			Cooperative Breeders
			Concept 8.4 Review
		8.5: Eusociality
			Eusocial Species
			Evolution of Eusociality
			Concept 8.5 Review
		Applications: Behavioral Ecology and Conservation
			TinbergenÕs Framework
			Environmental Enrichment and Development of Behavior
Section III: Population Ecology
	Chapter 9 Population Distribution and Abundance
		Concepts
		9.1: Distribution Limits
			Kangaroo Distributions and Climate
			Distributions of Plants Along a Moisture-Temperature Gradient
			Distributions of Barnacles Along an Intertidal Exposure Gradient
			Concept 9.1 Review
		9.2: Patterns on Small Scales
			Scale, Distributions, and Mechanisms
			Distributions of Tropical Bee Colonies
			Distributions of Desert Shrubs
			Concept 9.2 Review
		9.3: Patterns on Large Scales
			Bird Populations Across North America
			Plant Distributions Along Moisture Gradients
			Concept 9.3 Review
		9.4: Organism Size and Population Density
			Animal Size and Population Density
			Plant Size and Population Density
			Concept 9.4 Review
		Applications: Rarity and Vulnerability to Extinction
			Seven Forms of Rarity and One of Abundance
	Chapter 10: Population Dynamics
		Concepts
		10.1: Dispersal
			Dispersal of Expanding Populations
			Range Changes in Response to Climate Change
			Dispersal in Response to Changing Food Supply
			Dispersal in Rivers and Streams
			Concept 10.1 Review
		10.2: Metapopulations
			A Metapopulation of an Alpine Butterfly
			Dispersal Within a Metapopulation of Lesser Kestrels
			Concept 10.2 Review
		10.3: Patterns of Survival
			Estimating Patterns of Survival
			High Survival Among the Young
			Constant Rates of Survival
			High Mortality Among the Young
			Three Types of Survivorship Curves
			Concept 10.3 Review
		10.4: Age Distribution
			Contrasting Tree Populations
			A Dynamic Population in a Variable Climate
			Concept 10.4 Review
		10.5: Rates of Population Change
			Estimating Rates for an Annual Plant
			Estimating Rates When Generations Overlap
			Concept 10.5 Review
		Applications: Changes in Species Distributions in Response to Climate Warming
	Chapter 11: Population Growth
		Concepts
		11.1: Geometric and Exponential Population Growth
			Geometric Growth
			Exponential Growth
			Exponential Growth in Nature
			Concept 11.1 Review
		11.2: Logistic Population Growth
			Concept 11.2 Review
		11.3: Limits to Population Growth
			Environment and Birth and Death Among DarwinÕs Finches
			Concept 11.3 Review
		Applications: The Human Population
			Distribution and Abundance
			Population Dynamics
			Population Growth
	Chapter 12: Life Histories
		Concepts
		12.1: Offspring Number versus Size
			Egg Size and Number in Fish
			Seed Size and Number in Plants
			Seed Size and Seedling Performance
			Concept 12.1 Review
		12.2: Adult Survival and Reproductive Allocation
			Life History Variation Among Species
			Life History Variation within Species
			Concept 12.2 Review
		12.3: Life History Classification
			r and K Selection
			Plant Life Histories
			Opportunistic, Equilibrium, and Periodic Life Histories
			Lifetime Reproductive Effort and Relative Offspring Size: Two Central Variables?
			Concept 12.3 Review
		Applications: Climate Change and Timing of Reproduction and Migration
			Altered Plant Phenology
			Animal Phenology
Section IV: Interactions
	Chapter 13: Species Interactions and Competition
		Concepts
			Competitive Interactions Are Diverse
		13.1: Intraspecific Competition
			Intraspecific Competition Among Plants
			Intraspecific Competition Among Planthoppers
			Interference Competition Among Terrestrial Isopods
			Concept 13.1 Review
		13.2: Competitive Exclusion and Niches
			The Feeding Niches of DarwinÕs Finches
			Competition for Caterpillars
			Concept 13.2 Review
		13.3: Mathematical and Laboratory Models
			Modeling Interspecific Competition
			Laboratory Models of Competition
			Concept 13.3 Review
		13.4: Competition and Niches
			Niches and Competition Among Plants
			Niche Overlap and Competition Between Barnacles
			Competition and the Niches of Small Rodents
			Character Displacement
			Evidence for Competition in Nature
			Concept 13.4 Review
		Applications: Competition Between Native and Invasive Species
	Chapter 14: Exploitative Interactions: Predation, Herbivory, Parasitism, and Disease
		Concepts
		14.1: Exploitation and Abundance
			A Herbivorous Stream Insect and Its Algal Food
			Bats, Birds, and Herbivory in a Tropical Forest
			A Pathogenic Parasite, a Predator, and Its Prey
			Concept 14.1 Review
		14.2: Dynamics
			Cycles of Abundance in Snowshoe Hares and Their Predators
			Experimental Test of Food and Predation Impacts
			Population Cycles in Mathematical and Laboratory Models
			Concept 14.2 Review
		14.3: Refuges
			Refuges and Host Persistence in Laboratory and Mathematical Models
			Exploited Organisms and Their Wide Variety of ÒRefugesÓ
			Concept 14.3 Review
		14.4: Ratio-Dependent Models of Functional Response
			Alternative Model for Trophic Ecology
			Evidence for Ratio-Dependent Predation
			Concept 14.4 Review
		14.5: Complex Interactions
			Parasites and Pathogens That Manipulate Host Behavior
			The Entangling of Exploitation with Competition
			Concept 14.5 Review
		Applications: The Value of Pest Control by Bats: A Case Study
	Chapter 15: Mutualism
		Concepts
		15.1: Plant Mutualisms
			Plant Performance and Mycorrhizal Fungi
			Ants and Swollen Thorn Acacias
			A Temperate Plant Protection Mutualism
			Concept 15.1 Review
		15.2: Coral Mutualisms
			Zooxanthellae and Corals
			A Coral Protection Mutualism
			Concept 15.2 Review
		15.3: Evolution of Mutualism
			Facultative Ant-Plant Protection Mutualisms
			Concept 15.3 Review
		Applications: Mutualism and Humans
			Guiding Behavior
Section V: Communities and Ecosystems
	Chapter 16: Species Abundance and Diversity
		Concepts
		16.1: Species Abundance
			The Lognormal Distribution
			Concept 16.1 Review
		16.2: Species Diversity
			A Quantitative Index of Species Diversity
			Rank-Abundance Curves
			Concept 16.2 Review
		16.3: Environmental Complexity
			Forest Complexity and Bird Species Diversity
			Niches, Heterogeneity, and the Diversity of Algae and Plants
			The Niches of Algae and Terrestrial Plants
			Complexity in Plant Environments
			Soil and Topographic Heterogeneity
			Nutrient Enrichment Can Reduce Environmental Complexity
			Nitrogen Enrichment and Ectomycorrhizal Fungus Diversity
			Concept 16.3 Review
		16.4: Disturbance and Diversity
			The Nature and Sources of Disturbance
			The Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis
			Disturbance and Diversity in the Intertidal Zone
			Disturbance and Diversity in Temperate Grasslands
			Concept 16.4 Review
		Applications: Disturbance by Humans
			Urban Diversity
	Chapter 17: Species Interactions and Community Structure
		Concepts
			Strong Interactions and Food Web Structure
			Concept 17.1 Review
		17.2: Indirect Interactions
			Indirect Commensalism
			Apparent Competition
			Concept 17.2 Review
		17.3: Keystone Species
			Food Web Structure and Species Diversity
			Experimental Removal of Sea Stars
			Snail Effects on Algal Diversity
			Fish as Keystone Species in River Food Webs
			Concept 17.3 Review
		17.4: Mutualistic Keystones
			A Cleaner Fish as a Keystone Species
			Seed Dispersal Mutualists as Keystone Species
			Concept 17.4 Review
		Applications: Human Modification of Food Webs
			Parasitoid Wasps: Apparent Competition and Biological Control
	Chapter 18: Primary and Secondary Production
		Concepts
		18.1: Patterns of Terrestrial Primary Production
			Actual Evapotranspiration and Terrestrial Primary Production
			Soil Fertility and Terrestrial Primary Production
			Concept 18.1 Review
		18.2: Patterns of Aquatic Primary Production
			Patterns and Models
			Whole-Lake Experiments on Primary Production
			Global Patterns of Marine Primary Production
			Concept 18.2 Review
		18.3: Primary Producer Diversity
			Terrestrial Plant Diversity and Primary Production
			Algal Diversity and Aquatic Primary Production
			Concept 18.3 Review
		18.4: Consumer Influences
			Piscivores, Planktivores, and Lake Primary Production
			Grazing by Large Mammals and Primary Production on the Serengeti
			Concept 18.4 Review
		18.5: Secondary Production
			A Trophic Dynamic View of Ecosystems
			Top-down Versus Bottom-up Controls on Secondary Production
			Linking Primary Production and Secondary Production
			Concept 18.5 Review
		Applications: Using Stable Isotope Analysis to Study Feeding Habits
			Using Stable Isotopes to Identify Sources of Energy in a Salt Marsh
	Chapter 19: Nutrient Cycling and Retention
		Concepts
		19.1: Nutrient Cycles
			The Phosphorus Cycle
			The Nitrogen Cycle
			The Carbon Cycle
			Concept 19.1 Review
		19.2: Rates of Decomposition
			Decomposition in Two Mediterranean Woodland Ecosystems
			Decomposition in Two Temperate Forest Ecosystems
			Decomposition in Aquatic Ecosystems
			Concept 19.2 Review
		19.3: Organisms and Nutrients
			Nutrient Cycling in Streams and Lakes
			Animals and Nutrient Cycling in Terrestrial Ecosystems
			Plants and the Nutrient Dynamics of Ecosystems
			Concept 19.3 Review
		19.4: Disturbance and Nutrients
			Disturbance and Nutrient Loss from Forests
			Flooding and Nutrient Export by Streams
			Concept 19.4 Review
		Applications: Altering Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems
	Chapter 20: Succession and Stability
		Concepts
		20.1: Community Changes During Succession
			Primary Succession at Glacier Bay
			Secondary Succession in Temperate Forests
			Succession in Rocky Intertidal Communities
			Succession in Stream Communities
			Concept 20.1 Review
		20.2: Ecosystem Changes During Succession
			Four Million Years of Ecosystem Change
			Succession and Stream Ecosystem Properties
			Concept 20.2 Review
		20.3: Mechanisms of Succession
			Facilitation
			Tolerance
			Inhibition
			Successional Mechanisms in the Rocky Intertidal Zone
			Mechanisms in Old Field Succession
			Concept 20.3 Review
		20.4: Community and Ecosystem Stability
			Lessons from the Park Grass Experiment
			Replicate Disturbances and Desert Stream Stability
			Concept 20.4 Review
		Applications: Ecological Succession Informing Ecological Restoration
			Applying Succession Concepts to Restoration
Section VI: Large-Scale Ecology
	Chapter 21: Landscape Ecology
		Concepts
		21.1: Landscape Structure
			The Structure of Six Landscapes in Ohio
			The Fractal Geometry of Landscapes
			Concept 21.1 Review
		21.2: Landscape Processes
			Landscape Structure and the Dispersal of Mammals
			Habitat Patch Size and Isolation and the Density of Butterfly Populations
			Habitat Corridors and Movement of Organisms
			Landscape Position and Lake Chemistry
			Concept 21.2 Review
		21.3: Origins of Landscape Structure and Change
			Geological Processes, Climate, and Landscape Structure
			Organisms and Landscape Structure
			Fire and the Structure of a Mediterranean Landscape
			Concept 21.3 Review
		Applications: Landscape Approaches to Mitigating Urban Heat Islands
	Chapter 22: Geographic Ecology
		Concepts
		22.1: Area, Isolation, and Species Richness
			Island Area and Species Richness
			Island Isolation and Species Richness
			Concept 22.1 Review
		22.2: The Equilibrium Model of Island Biogeography
			Species Turnover on Islands
			Experimental Island Biogeography
			Colonization of New Islands by Plants
			Manipulating Island Area
			Island Biogeography Update
			Concept 22.2 Review
		22.3: Latitudinal Gradients in Species Richness
			Latitudinal Gradient Hypotheses
			Area and Latitudinal Gradients in Species Richness
			Continental Area and Species Richness
			Concept 22.3 Review
		22.4: Historical and Regional Influences
			Exceptional Patterns of Diversity
			Historical and Regional Explanations
			Concept 22.4 Review
		Applications: Global Positioning Systems, Remote Sensing, and Geographic Information Systems
			Global Positioning Systems
			Remote Sensing
			Geographic Information Systems
	Chapter 23: Global Ecology
		Concepts
			The Atmospheric Envelope and the Greenhouse Earth
		23.1: A Global System
			The Historical Thread
			El Ni–o and La Ni–a
			El Ni–o Southern Oscillation and Marine Populations
			El Ni–o and the Great Salt Lake
			El Ni–o and Terrestrial Populations in Australia
			Concept 23.1 Review
		23.2: Human Activity and the Global Nitrogen Cycle
			Concept 23.2 Review
		23.3: Changes in Land Cover
			Deforestation
			Concept 23.3 Review
		23.4: Human Influence on Atmospheric Composition
			Depletion and Recovery of the Ozone Layer
			Concept 23.4 Review
		Applications: Impacts of Global Climate Change
			Shifts in Biodiversity and Widespread Extinction of Species
			Human Impacts of Climate Change
Appendix A: Investigating the Evidence
	1:  The Scientific MethodÑQuestions and Hypotheses
	2:  Determining the Sample Mean
	3:  Determining the Sample Median
	4:  Variation in Data
	5:  Laboratory Experiments
	6:  Sample Size
	7:  Scatter Plots and the Relationship Between Variables
	8: Estimating Heritability Using Regression Analysis
	9: Clumped, Random, and Regular Distributions
	10: Hypotheses and Statistical Significance
	11:  Frequency of Alternative Phenotypes in a Population
	12:  A Statistical Test for Distribution Pattern
	13:  Field Experiments
	14:  Standard Error of the Mean
	15: Confidence Intervals
	16:  Estimating the Number of Species in Communities
	17:  Using Confidence Intervals to Compare Populations
	18:  Comparing Two Populations with the t-Test
	19:  Assumptions for Statistical Tests
	20:  Variation Around the Median
	21:  Comparison of Two Samples Using a Rank Sum Test
	22:  Sample Size Revisited
	23:  Discovering WhatÕs Been Discovered
Appendix B: Statistical Tables
Appendix C: Abbreviations Used in This Text
Appendix D: Global Biomes
Glossary
References
Index