Earth Surface Processes, Landforms and Sediment Deposits

Cover......Page p0001.djvu
Half-title......Page p0003.djvu
Title......Page p0005.djvu
Copyright......Page p0006.djvu
Contents......Page p0007.djvu
Acknowledgments......Page p0009.djvu
Figure credits......Page p0010.djvu
Part 1 Introduction......Page p0017.djvu
Engineering, environmental, and public-safety issues......Page p0019.djvu
Rationale and scope of the book......Page p0021.djvu
Introduction: spheres of the Earth......Page p0025.djvu
Composition......Page p0026.djvu
Physical properties......Page p0027.djvu
Plate tectonics......Page p0028.djvu
Physical properties......Page p0030.djvu
Earth rotation effects on atmospheric and oceanic circulation......Page p0033.djvu
Atmospheric circulation, weather, and climate......Page p0034.djvu
Milankovitch orbital variations and climate......Page p0039.djvu
Chemical properties of water......Page p0040.djvu
Composition of the hydrosphere......Page p0045.djvu
Physical properties of the hydrosphere......Page p0047.djvu
Circulation in the hydrosphere......Page p0049.djvu
The three domains of life......Page p0050.djvu
Archaea and bacteria (prokaryotes)......Page p0051.djvu
Eukaryotes......Page p0053.djvu
Evolution of the lithosphere......Page p0056.djvu
Evolution of the atmosphere......Page p0058.djvu
Evolution of the hydrosphere......Page p0059.djvu
Evolution of the biosphere......Page p0061.djvu
Part 2 Production of sediment at the Earth’s surface......Page p0063.djvu
Freeze–thaw......Page p0065.djvu
Pressure release......Page p0066.djvu
Fundamentals of solution chemistry......Page p0067.djvu
The pH, pe, and Eh scales for natural waters......Page p0069.djvu
Testing for equilibrium......Page p0071.djvu
Rainwater......Page p0072.djvu
Subsurface water......Page p0074.djvu
Congruent chemical weathering reactions......Page p0076.djvu
Incongruent chemical weathering reactions......Page p0077.djvu
Rates of chemical reactions......Page p0080.djvu
Clay minerals......Page p0082.djvu
Soil horizons......Page p0087.djvu
Soil structure......Page p0089.djvu
Organic features of soils......Page p0092.djvu
Lateral and vertical variation in thickness and type of soils......Page p0093.djvu
Diagenesis of soils......Page p0094.djvu
Interpretation of paleosols......Page p0096.djvu
Texture......Page p0097.djvu
Classification of terrigenous sandstones on the basis of composition......Page p0098.djvu
Terrigenous grain types......Page p0100.djvu
Weathering and landforms......Page p0102.djvu
Weathering, soils, and global climate......Page p0104.djvu
Introduction......Page p0105.djvu
Calcium carbonate mineralogy......Page p0106.djvu
Calcium carbonate geochemistry......Page p0107.djvu
Rates and controls of production of modern carbonate sediments......Page p0110.djvu
Skeletal grains......Page p0111.djvu
Carbonate mud......Page p0116.djvu
Pellets......Page p0118.djvu
Intraclasts......Page p0119.djvu
Ooids and pisoids......Page p0120.djvu
Silica mineralogy......Page p0121.djvu
Silica geochemistry......Page p0122.djvu
Modern siliceous sediments......Page p0123.djvu
Ancient cherts......Page p0124.djvu
Chemical divides and the minerals precipitated from evaporating water......Page p0125.djvu
Sources of evaporating water......Page p0127.djvu
Iron minerals and sedimentary grains......Page p0129.djvu
Modern environments of iron-mineral formation......Page p0131.djvu
Ancient iron-bearing sedimentary rocks......Page p0134.djvu
Phosphate minerals and sedimentary grains......Page p0138.djvu
Part 3 Fundamentals of fluid flow, sediment transport, erosion, and deposition......Page p0139.djvu
Definition of physical properties of water and its motion......Page p0141.djvu
Forces acting on stationary and moving fluids......Page p0142.djvu
Laminar flow and turbulent flow: the Reynolds number......Page p0143.djvu
Turbulent boundary layers in steady, uniform turbulent flows......Page p0147.djvu
Vertical profiles of shear stress and velocity in steady, uniform boundary layers......Page p0150.djvu
Hydraulically smooth, transitional, and rough boundaries......Page p0151.djvu
Depth-averaged flow velocity and flow resistance......Page p0152.djvu
Spatial variation of turbulent fluctuations in straight, uniform flows......Page p0153.djvu
Turbulent boundary layers in steady, non-uniform flows and flow separation......Page p0155.djvu
Unsteady flows......Page p0157.djvu
Grain properties......Page p0158.djvu
Settling of grains in fluids......Page p0160.djvu
Drag and lift on bed grains......Page p0162.djvu
The threshold of transport of grains of mixed sizes, shapes, and densities......Page p0165.djvu
Bed load......Page p0166.djvu
Effect of sediment transport on flow characteristics......Page p0167.djvu
Sediment-transport rate (capacity)......Page p0168.djvu
Sorting and abrasion of sediment during transport in turbulent flow......Page p0171.djvu
Sediment sorting and orientation during erosion and deposition......Page p0173.djvu
Sediment-routing models......Page p0175.djvu
Bed forms and sedimentary structures......Page p0177.djvu
Ripples......Page p0178.djvu
Lower-stage ‘‘plane’’ beds and associated bed forms......Page p0180.djvu
Dunes......Page p0183.djvu
Flow and sediment transport over ripples and dunes......Page p0187.djvu
Cross strata formed by ripples and dunes......Page p0190.djvu
Upper-stage plane beds......Page p0199.djvu
Planar lamination associated with upper-stage plane beds......Page p0200.djvu
Antidunes......Page p0201.djvu
Transverse ribs......Page p0203.djvu
Cross stratification formed by antidunes......Page p0204.djvu
Porosity and permeability in stratified sands and gravels......Page p0205.djvu
Hydraulic criteria for the existence of equilibrium bed states......Page p0206.djvu
Theories for the hydraulic stability and geometry of bed states......Page p0208.djvu
Erosional structures in cohesionless sediments......Page p0211.djvu
Bed forms and sedimentary structures in cohesive sediments (muds)......Page p0212.djvu
The threshold of entrainment of cohesionless sediment......Page p0215.djvu
Mechanics of bed-load motion......Page p0216.djvu
Mechanics of transport of suspended sediment......Page p0217.djvu
Sand ripples and granule ridges......Page p0219.djvu
Dunes and draas......Page p0220.djvu
Internal structures of wind ripples, dunes, and draas......Page p0225.djvu
Erosional bed forms......Page p0230.djvu
Implications for humans......Page p0232.djvu
Generation of wind waves......Page p0233.djvu
Wave theories......Page p0234.djvu
Changes in wave form and speed......Page p0237.djvu
Wave reflection, refraction, and diffraction......Page p0239.djvu
Rip currents and nearshore circulation......Page p0240.djvu
Wind shear and geostrophic currents......Page p0241.djvu
The threshold of entrainment of cohesionless sediment......Page p0247.djvu
Sediment sorting during transport......Page p0248.djvu
Bed forms and sedimentary structures due to wind waves and associated currents......Page p0249.djvu
Wave ripples......Page p0250.djvu
Sedimentary structures formed by wave ripples and associated currents......Page p0252.djvu
Plane beds and planar lamination......Page p0256.djvu
Hydraulic criteria for the existence of equilibrium bed states under wind waves......Page p0257.djvu
Generation of tides......Page p0258.djvu
Tidal currents......Page p0259.djvu
Sediment transport by tidal currents......Page p0262.djvu
Ripples......Page p0264.djvu
Tsunami......Page p0267.djvu
Tsunami generation......Page p0269.djvu
Tsunami dynamics......Page p0270.djvu
Sediment transport, erosion, and deposition associated with tsunami......Page p0272.djvu
Initiation of sediment motion on slopes......Page p0275.djvu
Rock falls, slides, and slumps......Page p0276.djvu
The nature of motion of sediment gravity flows......Page p0278.djvu
Flow mechanics......Page p0279.djvu
Grain-flow deposits......Page p0281.djvu
Flow mechanics......Page p0282.djvu
Sediment sorting and orientation in debris flows......Page p0283.djvu
Introduction......Page p0284.djvu
Flow mechanics......Page p0286.djvu
Erosion and deposition by turbidity currents......Page p0290.djvu
Liquefied sediment flows......Page p0292.djvu
Earth surface slopes and sediment gravity flows......Page p0293.djvu
Social and environmental impacts of sediment gravity flows......Page p0297.djvu
Introduction......Page p0298.djvu
The nature of volcanic eruptions and formation of pyroclastic sediment......Page p0300.djvu
Pyroclastic sediment settling (pyroclastic fall)......Page p0302.djvu
Pyroclastic density currents......Page p0305.djvu
Preservation of the stratigraphic record of volcanic activity......Page p0307.djvu
Topography of the Earth......Page p0308.djvu
Composition of surface rocks, air, and water......Page p0309.djvu
Other Earth surface processes......Page p0311.djvu
Formation and physical properties of ice......Page p0312.djvu
Velocity, shear stress, and internal deformation of ice......Page p0313.djvu
Ice fractures, faults, and folds......Page p0315.djvu
Meltwater streams......Page p0316.djvu
Icebergs......Page p0318.djvu
Numerical models of glaciers and ice sheets......Page p0320.djvu
Ice erosion......Page p0321.djvu
Sediment transport in flowing ice......Page p0323.djvu
Sediment deposition from flowing ice......Page p0324.djvu
Sediment transport and deposition from icebergs......Page p0329.djvu
Modern burrows, trails, and trackways......Page p0331.djvu
Controls on the nature of modern biogenic structures......Page p0334.djvu
Preservation modes of trace fossils......Page p0338.djvu
Interpretation of behavior from trace fossils......Page p0339.djvu
Definition and interpretation of ichnofacies or ichnocoenosis......Page p0341.djvu
Evolutionary significance of trace fossils......Page p0351.djvu
Introduction......Page p0352.djvu
The origin of stromatolites......Page p0353.djvu
Evolution of stromatolites......Page p0357.djvu
Description......Page p0358.djvu
The origin of thrombolites......Page p0359.djvu
Evolution of thrombolites......Page p0360.djvu
Description......Page p0362.djvu
Roll-up structures......Page p0364.djvu
Types and origins of fenestrae......Page p0365.djvu
Tufas and travertines......Page p0366.djvu
Cave deposits......Page p0369.djvu
Calcareous soil crusts......Page p0370.djvu
Inverse density gradients......Page p0372.djvu
Upward escape of fluid and sediment......Page p0373.djvu
Downslope slumping......Page p0376.djvu
Fluid shear stress......Page p0377.djvu
Contraction (shrinkage)......Page p0378.djvu
Expansion due to early cement growth (tepee structures)......Page p0381.djvu
Part 4 Environments of erosion and deposition......Page p0383.djvu
Introduction......Page p0385.djvu
Geometry of river systems......Page p0386.djvu
Origin and evolution of river systems......Page p0388.djvu
Hydrographs......Page p0391.djvu
Flood frequency......Page p0393.djvu
Sediment supply to river systems......Page p0394.djvu
Controls on geometry, water flow, and sediment transport in river systems......Page p0395.djvu
Origin and evolution of alluvial river channels......Page p0397.djvu
Plan geometry (pattern) of alluvial river channels......Page p0400.djvu
Controls of alluvial channel pattern......Page p0403.djvu
Cross-sectional geometry of curved channel segments......Page p0405.djvu
At-a-station hydraulic geometry of channels......Page p0408.djvu
Spatial variations in hydraulic geometry of channels......Page p0409.djvu
Geometry of confluence zones......Page p0411.djvu
Minimum-energy theories......Page p0413.djvu
Hydraulic theories......Page p0414.djvu
Flow in alluvial channels at the compound-bar–bend scale......Page p0415.djvu
Flow in curved channel segments......Page p0416.djvu
Flow in confluence zones......Page p0417.djvu
Rate and mean grain size of sediment transport......Page p0419.djvu
Erosional bed forms in channels......Page p0421.djvu
Processes of erosion and deposition......Page p0422.djvu
Cutting and filling of channels......Page p0425.djvu
Effect of riparian vegetation on flow and sedimentary processes in rivers......Page p0426.djvu
Depositional models for channel and bar deposits......Page p0427.djvu
Quantitative depositional models......Page p0429.djvu
Qualitative depositional models......Page p0430.djvu
Channel-bar deposits......Page p0431.djvu
Channel-fill deposits......Page p0437.djvu
Evidence of the falling-flow stage......Page p0439.djvu
Paleocurrent orientations......Page p0440.djvu
Qualitative interpretation of ancient channel deposits......Page p0442.djvu
Quantitative interpretation of ancient channel deposits from outcrops......Page p0443.djvu
Estimation of paleochannel depth from subsurface data......Page p0446.djvu
Well-to-well correlation......Page p0447.djvu
Estimation of width of superimposed-channel-belts from subsurface deposits......Page p0449.djvu
The geometry of floodplains......Page p0450.djvu
Water flow on floodplains......Page p0452.djvu
Flood frequency and floodplain deposition......Page p0453.djvu
Levee, crevasse-splay, and lacustrine-delta deposits......Page p0454.djvu
Floodplain channel fills......Page p0457.djvu
Floodplain soils......Page p0458.djvu
Fossils in fluvial deposits......Page p0460.djvu
Effects of sedimentation rate on avulsion......Page p0461.djvu
Effects of base-level change on avulsion......Page p0462.djvu
Theoretical models of avulsion......Page p0463.djvu
Non-avulsive shifts of channel belts across floodplains......Page p0465.djvu
Effects of tectonism on along-valley variation of rivers and floodplains......Page p0466.djvu
Definition, occurrence, and geometry of alluvial fans......Page p0468.djvu
Flow and sedimentary processes on alluvial fans......Page p0469.djvu
Definition of alluvial architecture......Page p0470.djvu
Controls of alluvial architecture......Page p0471.djvu
Process-based (process-imitating) models of alluvial architecture......Page p0472.djvu
Prediction of alluvial architecture of subsurface deposits: stochastic models......Page p0475.djvu
Large-scale erosion in rivers and floodplains......Page p0477.djvu
Bedrock rivers......Page p0478.djvu
Classification of lakes......Page p0482.djvu
Sediment type and its rate of supply......Page p0483.djvu
The composition of the lake waters......Page p0484.djvu
Water temperature......Page p0485.djvu
Water currents......Page p0486.djvu
Deep-water deposition......Page p0488.djvu
Calcium carbonate and silica......Page p0490.djvu
Lamination of lake-floor sediments......Page p0491.djvu
Recognition of ancient lake deposits, with examples......Page p0492.djvu
Introduction......Page p0493.djvu
Climate......Page p0494.djvu
Physical properties of seawater......Page p0495.djvu
Classification of coasts and shallow seas......Page p0496.djvu
Flow and sedimentary processes at river mouths......Page p0498.djvu
Geometry, flow, and sedimentary processes......Page p0502.djvu
Processes and deposits of Gilbert-type deltas......Page p0504.djvu
Processes and deposits of river-dominated marine deltas......Page p0505.djvu
Effects of basin currents on delta-front geometry and deposits......Page p0510.djvu
Large-scale geometry and origin......Page p0511.djvu
General patterns of water flow, sediment transport, erosion, and deposition......Page p0516.djvu
Flow, sedimentary processes, and deposits for deep offshore zones......Page p0518.djvu
Flow, sedimentary processes, and deposits for shallow offshore zones......Page p0519.djvu
Flow, sedimentary processes, and deposits for shorefaces: linear sand ridges......Page p0521.djvu
Flow, sedimentary processes, and deposits for shorefaces and beaches: longshore bars......Page p0522.djvu
Flow, sedimentary processes, and deposits for beaches: surf and swash zones......Page p0525.djvu
Flow, sedimentary processes, and deposits for beaches: berms and beach cusps......Page p0526.djvu
Flow, sedimentary processes, and deposits for washovers......Page p0527.djvu
Flow, sedimentary processes, and deposits for back-barrier lagoons......Page p0528.djvu
Depositional models for wave-dominated coasts and shallow seas during marine transgression and regression......Page p0529.djvu
Geometry and origin......Page p0530.djvu
General patterns of water flow, sediment transport, erosion, and deposition......Page p0536.djvu
Flow, sedimentary processes, and deposits in tidal channels and deltas......Page p0537.djvu
Flow, sedimentary processes, and deposits for intertidal flats and associated environments......Page p0541.djvu
Flow, sedimentary processes, and deposits for tide-dominated seas......Page p0545.djvu
Depositional models for tide-dominated coasts and shallow seas during marine transgression and regression......Page p0546.djvu
Coasts and shallow seas with calcium carbonate sediments......Page p0547.djvu
Overall geometry, flow, and sedimentary processes......Page p0550.djvu
Geometry, flow, sedimentary processes, and deposits of coasts of rimmed shelves......Page p0552.djvu
Geometry, flow, sedimentary processes, and deposits of shallow shelves of rimmed shelves......Page p0559.djvu
Geometry, flow, sedimentary processes, and deposits for rim shoals......Page p0562.djvu
Reefs and other organic buildups......Page p0564.djvu
Sedimentary sequences in carbonate deposits......Page p0569.djvu
Rocky coasts......Page p0577.djvu
Coastal–marine engineering and environmental concerns......Page p0580.djvu
Economic aspects of coastal and shallow-marine deposits......Page p0582.djvu
Climate, location, and types of arid environment......Page p0583.djvu
Eroding bare rock with thin soils......Page p0587.djvu
Ephemeral streams, floodplains, and fans: geometry, processes, and deposits......Page p0588.djvu
Aeolian sand seas (ergs): geometry, processes, and deposits......Page p0590.djvu
Perennial saline lakes: geometry, processes, and deposits......Page p0592.djvu
Ephemeral saline lakes: geometry, processes, and deposits......Page p0597.djvu
Saline lacustrine shorelines and tufas: geometry, processes, and deposits......Page p0601.djvu
Arid coastlines......Page p0604.djvu
Supratidal sabkhas: geometry, processes, and deposits......Page p0605.djvu
Modern saline lagoons: geometry, processes, and deposits......Page p0607.djvu
Desiccated shelves and ocean basins: geometry, processes, and deposits......Page p0610.djvu
Time variations in arid environments......Page p0611.djvu
Large-scale depositional sequences......Page p0612.djvu
Economic aspects of arid-region deposits......Page p0614.djvu
Glacial environments......Page p0615.djvu
Roches moutonnées......Page p0617.djvu
Subglacial erosion by glacial meltwater......Page p0618.djvu
Ground moraines......Page p0620.djvu
End moraines......Page p0622.djvu
Deposits of meltwater streams......Page p0624.djvu
Outwash plains and deposits......Page p0627.djvu
Loess blankets and sand seas......Page p0628.djvu
Glaciolacustrine and glaciomarine environments and deposits......Page p0629.djvu
Periglacial settings......Page p0632.djvu
Evolution of glacial environments over glacial and interglacial periods......Page p0634.djvu
The Neogene ice age......Page p0638.djvu
Evidence for glaciations......Page p0639.djvu
Evidence from ice cores......Page p0641.djvu
Changes in supply of water and sediment to rivers and lakes......Page p0643.djvu
Pre-Neogene glaciations......Page p0645.djvu
Changes in solar radiation reaching the Earth......Page p0647.djvu
Interactions among the biosphere, atmosphere, and oceans......Page p0648.djvu
Autocyclic factors......Page p0649.djvu
Problems in studying deep-sea environments and their deposits......Page p0650.djvu
Basin margins......Page p0652.djvu
Volcanic hills and mid-oceanic ridges......Page p0658.djvu
Seawater composition, temperature, and movement......Page p0660.djvu
Surface-water circulation......Page p0661.djvu
Deep-water (thermohaline) circulation......Page p0664.djvu
Sediment supply......Page p0666.djvu
Vertical settling of fine-grained sediment......Page p0667.djvu
Sediment transport by deep-water (thermohaline) water currents......Page p0670.djvu
Classification of deep-sea sedimentary facies......Page p0672.djvu
Continental slopes and associated submarine channels and fans......Page p0673.djvu
Basin plains......Page p0679.djvu
Volcanic hills and mid-oceanic ridges......Page p0681.djvu
Large-scale stratigraphic models of deep-sea fans and associated environments......Page p0684.djvu
Large-scale stratigraphic models for carbonate slopes......Page p0686.djvu
Part 5 Sediment into rock: diagenesis......Page p0691.djvu
Conditions of diagenesis......Page p0693.djvu
Overview of diagenetic processes and products......Page p0695.djvu
Factors that control diagenesis......Page p0696.djvu
Chemical composition of the pore fluids......Page p0697.djvu
Flow in the basin......Page p0698.djvu
Terrigenous sandstones and carbonate grainstones......Page p0700.djvu
Carbonate muds......Page p0703.djvu
Differential compaction......Page p0704.djvu
Cement mineralogy......Page p0705.djvu
Cement morphology......Page p0706.djvu
Diagenesis of terrigenous sands and gravels......Page p0711.djvu
Diagenesis of terrigenous muds and associated organic matter......Page p0713.djvu
Early subaerial diagenesis......Page p0714.djvu
Early submarine diagenesis......Page p0715.djvu
Dolomitization......Page p0717.djvu
Peat-coal......Page p0720.djvu
Part 6 Long-term, large-scale processes: mountains and sedimentary basins......Page p0721.djvu
Description of strata in sedimentary basins......Page p0723.djvu
A review of controls on erosion and deposition in various depositional environments......Page p0727.djvu
Early attempts to interpret large-scale sedimentary sequences in sedimentary basins......Page p0728.djvu
Terrestrial environments......Page p0729.djvu
Coastal and marine environments......Page p0731.djvu
Tectonic effects in various types of sedimentary basins......Page p0732.djvu
Compressional basins......Page p0737.djvu
Extensional basins......Page p0742.djvu
Evidence for paleoclimatic conditions in sedimentary deposits......Page p0749.djvu
Climate change over time......Page p0751.djvu
Continental environments......Page p0755.djvu
Marine environments......Page p0757.djvu
References......Page p0762.djvu
Index......Page p0815.djvu