Earth Environments: Past, Present and Future

Earth Environments......Page 3
Contents......Page 7
Introduction......Page 13
SECTION I Introduction to Earth Systems......Page 19
1 Introduction to Earth Systems......Page 21
1.1 Introduction to the Earth’s formation......Page 22
1.2 Introduction to Earth spheres......Page 23
1.3 Scales in space and time......Page 24
1.4 Systems and feedback......Page 25
1.5 Open and closed flow systems......Page 26
1.6 Equilibrium in systems......Page 27
1.7 Time cycles in systems......Page 29
References......Page 31
SECTION II Atmospheric and Ocean Systems......Page 33
2 Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere......Page 35
2.2 Composition of the atmosphere......Page 36
Exercises......Page 40
Further reading......Page 41
3 Energy in the Atmosphere and the Earth Heat Budget......Page 43
3.2 Solar radiation......Page 44
Further reading......Page 54
4 Moisture in the Atmosphere......Page 55
4.2 The global hydrological cycle......Page 56
4.4 Clouds......Page 60
4.5 Precipitation......Page 62
Further reading......Page 66
5 Atmospheric Motion......Page 67
5.2 Atmospheric pressure......Page 68
5.3 Winds and pressure gradients......Page 69
5.4 The global pattern of atmospheric circulation......Page 73
Exercises......Page 76
Further reading......Page 77
6 Weather Systems......Page 79
6.2 Macroscale synoptic systems......Page 80
6.3 Meso-scale: Local winds......Page 89
6.4 Microclimates......Page 92
6.5 Weather observation and forecasting......Page 97
Exercises......Page 104
Further reading......Page 105
7 World Climates......Page 107
7.2 Classification of climate......Page 108
Further reading......Page 118
8 Ocean Structure and Circulation Patterns......Page 119
8.2 Physical structure of the oceans......Page 120
8.4 Ocean circulation......Page 123
8.5 Sea-level change......Page 127
Further reading......Page 128
9 Atmospheric Evolution and Climate Change......Page 129
9.1 Evolution of the Earth’s atmosphere......Page 130
Further reading......Page 133
10 Principles of Climate Change......Page 135
10.2 Evidence for climate change......Page 136
10.3 Causes of climate change......Page 143
Further reading......Page 154
SECTION III Endogenic Geological Systems......Page 155
11 Earth Materials: Mineralogy, Rocks and the Rock Cycle......Page 157
11.1 What is a mineral?......Page 158
11.2 Rocks and the rock cycle......Page 166
11.3 Vulcanicity and igneous rocks......Page 169
11.4 Sedimentary rocks, fossils and sedimentary structures......Page 171
11.5 Metamorphic rocks......Page 177
Exercises......Page 180
Further reading......Page 181
12 The Internal Structure of the Earth......Page 183
12.2 Evidence of the Earth’s composition from drilling......Page 184
12.4 Evidence of the Earth’s composition from meteorites......Page 185
12.5 Using earthquake seismic waves as Earth probes......Page 186
Further reading......Page 189
13 Plate Tectonics and Volcanism: Processes, Products and Landforms......Page 191
13.2 Global tectonics: how plates, basins and mountains are created......Page 192
13.3 Volcanic processes and the global tectonic model......Page 195
13.4 Magma eruption......Page 204
13.5 Explosive volcanism......Page 212
13.7 Transport and deposition of pyroclastic materials......Page 218
13.8 The relationship between volcanic processes and the Earth’s atmosphere and climate......Page 228
13.9 Relationships between volcanic eruptions and biotic evolution......Page 234
13.10 Plate tectonics, uniformitarianism and Earth history......Page 235
References......Page 241
Further reading......Page 243
14 Geotectonics: Processes, Structures and Landforms......Page 245
14.2 Tectonic structures......Page 246
14.3 Tectonic structures as lines of weakness in landscape evolution......Page 252
Further reading......Page 253
SECTION IV Exogenic Geological Systems......Page 255
15 Weathering Processes and Products......Page 257
15.1 Introduction......Page 258
15.2 Physical or mechanical weathering......Page 260
15.3 Chemical weathering......Page 269
15.5 Weathering landforms......Page 280
References......Page 285
Further reading......Page 286
16 Slope Processes and Morphology......Page 287
16.2 Slopes: mass movement......Page 288
16.3 Hillslope hydrology and slope processes......Page 315
16.4 Slope morphology and its evolution......Page 323
References......Page 336
Further reading......Page 337
17 Fluvial Processes and Landform–Sediment Assemblages......Page 339
17.2 Loose boundary hydraulics......Page 340
17.3 The energy of a river and its ability to do work......Page 341
17.4 Transport of the sediment load......Page 343
17.5 Types of sediment load......Page 345
17.6 River hydrology......Page 346
17.7 The drainage basin......Page 347
17.9 Fluvial channel geomorphology......Page 350
References......Page 394
Further reading......Page 396
18 Carbonate Sedimentary Environments and Karst Processes and Landforms......Page 397
18.2 Carbonate sedimentary environments and the creation of carbonate rock characteristics......Page 398
18.3 Evaporites......Page 412
18.4 Carbonate facies models......Page 413
18.5 Karst processes......Page 419
Exercises......Page 445
References......Page 446
Further reading......Page 447
19 Coastal Processes, Landforms and Sediments......Page 449
19.1 Introduction to the coastal zone......Page 450
19.2 Sea waves, tides and tsunamis......Page 451
19.3 Tides......Page 457
19.5 Coastal landsystems......Page 463
19.6 Distribution of coastal landsystems......Page 507
19.7 The impact of climatic change on coastal landsystems: What lies in the future?......Page 510
References......Page 516
Further reading......Page 517
20 Glacial Processes and Landsystems......Page 519
20.1 Introduction......Page 520
20.2 Mass balance and glacier formation......Page 522
20.3 Mass balance and glacier flow......Page 528
20.4 Surging or galloping glaciers......Page 530
20.5 Processes of glacial erosion and deposition......Page 533
20.6 Glacial landsystems......Page 554
References......Page 580
Further reading......Page 581
21 Periglacial Processes and Landform–Sediment Assemblages......Page 583
21.2 Permafrost......Page 584
21.3 Periglacial processes and landforms......Page 587
21.4 Frost heaving and frost thrusting......Page 589
21.5 Landforms associated with frost sorting......Page 591
21.7 Frost cracking and the development of ice wedges......Page 592
21.8 Growth of ground ice and its decay, and the development of pingos, thufurs and palsas......Page 596
21.9 Processes associated with snowbanks (nivation processes)......Page 601
21.10 Cryoplanation or altiplanation processes and their resultant landforms......Page 603
21.11 The development of tors......Page 606
21.12 Slope processes associated with the short summer melt season......Page 611
21.13 Cambering and associated structures......Page 614
21.14 Wind action in a periglacial climate......Page 615
21.15 Fluvial processes in a periglacial environment......Page 618
21.16 Alluvial fans in a periglacial region......Page 620
21.17 An overview of the importance of periglacial processes in shaping the landscape of upland Britain......Page 621
References......Page 625
22 Aeolian (Wind) Processes and Landform–Sediment Assemblages......Page 629
22.1 Introduction......Page 630
22.3 Sediment entrainment and processes of sand movement......Page 631
22.4 Processes of wind transport......Page 632
22.5 Aeolian bedforms......Page 634
22.6 Dune and aeolian sediments......Page 647
22.7 Dust and loess deposition......Page 649
22.8 Wind erosion landforms......Page 651
References......Page 655
Further reading......Page 657
SECTION V Principles of Ecology and Biogeography......Page 659
23 Principles of Ecology and Biogeography......Page 661
23.2 Why do organisms live where they do?......Page 662
23.3 Components of ecosystems......Page 665
23.4 Energy flow in ecosystems......Page 669
23.5 Food chains and webs......Page 675
23.6 Pathways of mineral matter (biogeochemical cycling)......Page 678
23.7 Vegetation succession and climaxes......Page 683
23.8 Concluding remarks......Page 699
Exercises......Page 700
Further reading......Page 701
24 Soil-forming Processes and Products......Page 703
24.2 Controls on soil formation......Page 704
24.3 Soils as systems......Page 707
24.4 Soil profile development......Page 708
24.5 Soil properties......Page 714
24.6 Soil description in the field......Page 722
24.7 Key soil types, with a description and typical profile......Page 725
24.8 Podsolization: theories......Page 729
24.9 Soil classification......Page 730
24.10 Regional and local soil distribution......Page 738
24.11 The development of dune soils: an example from the Sefton coast......Page 747
24.12 The development of woodland soils in Delamere Forest......Page 748
24.14 Palaeosols......Page 749
References......Page 750
Further reading......Page 751
25 World Ecosystems......Page 753
25.1 Introduction......Page 754
25.2 The tundra ecozone......Page 755
25.3 The tropical (equatorial) rain forest, or humid tropics sensu stricto, ecozone......Page 762
25.4 The seasonal tropics or savanna ecozone......Page 768
25.5 Potential effects of global warming on the world’s ecozones......Page 775
Further reading......Page 777
SECTION VI Global Environmental Change: Past, Present and Future......Page 779
26 The Earth as a Planet: Geological Evolution and Change......Page 781
26.2 How unique is the Earth as a planet?......Page 782
26.4 The early geological record......Page 783
26.6 How did the Earth’s core form?......Page 786
26.7 Evolution of the Earth’s mantle......Page 787
26.8 Evolution of the continental crust......Page 795
Exercises......Page 796
Further reading......Page 797
27 Atmospheric Evolution and Climate Change......Page 799
27.1 Evolution of the Earth’s atmosphere......Page 800
27.2 Future climate change......Page 801
Further reading......Page 806
28 Change in Ocean Circulation and the Hydrosphere......Page 807
28.2 Sea-level change and the supercontinental cycle......Page 808
28.3 Ocean circulation in a warming climate......Page 812
Further reading......Page 813
29 Biosphere Evolution and Change in the Biosphere......Page 815
29.2 Mechanisms of evolution in the fossil record......Page 816
29.3 The origins of life......Page 819
29.4 An outline history of the Earth’s biospheric evolution......Page 821
29.5 Mass extinctions and catastrophes in the history of life on Earth......Page 835
Exercises......Page 842
Further reading......Page 843
30 Environmental Change: Greenhouse and Icehouse Earth Phases and Climates Prior to Recent Changes......Page 845
30.2 Early glaciations in the Proterozoic phase of the Pre-Cambrian (the Snowball Earth hypothesis)......Page 846
30.3 Examples of changes from greenhouse to icehouse climates in the Earth’s past......Page 851
30.4 Late Cenozoic ice ages: rapid climate change in the Quaternary......Page 863
30.5 Late Glacial climates and evidence for rapid change......Page 870
30.6 The Medieval Warm Period or Medieval Climate Optimum and the Little Ice Age......Page 878
References......Page 882
Further reading......Page 884
31 Global Environmental Change in the Future......Page 885
31.2 Future climate change......Page 886
31.3 Change in the geosphere......Page 887
31.4 Change in the oceans and hydrosphere......Page 890
31.6 A timeline for future Earth......Page 891
31.7 Causes for future optimism?......Page 892
31.8 Concluding remarks......Page 894
References......Page 895
Further reading......Page 896
Index......Page 897