Earth An Introduction to Physical Geology

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Brief Contents
Table of Contents
SmartFigures
Preface
Acknowledgments
1. An Introduction to Geology
	1.1. Geology: The Science of Earth
		Physical and Historical Geology
		Geology, People, and the Environment
	GEOGraphics 1.1: World Population Passes 7 Billion
	1.2. The Development of Geology
		Catastrophism
		The Birth of Modern Geology
		Geology Today
		The Magnitude of Geologic Time
	1.3. The Nature of Scientific Inquiry
		Hypothesis
		Theory
		Scientific Methods
		Plate Tectonics and Scientific Inquiry
	1.4. Earth as a System
		Earth’s Spheres
		Earth System Science
		The Earth System
	1.5. Origin and Early Evolution of Earth
		Origin of Our Solar System
	GEOGraphics 1.2 Solar System: Size and Scale
		Formation of Earth’s Layered Structure
	1.6. Earth’s Internal Structure
		Earth’s Crust
		Earth’s Mantle
		Earth’s Core
	1.7. Rocks and the Rock Cycle
		The Basic Cycle
		Alternative Paths
	1.8. The Face of Earth
		Major Features of the Ocean Floor
		Major Features of the Continents
	Concepts in Review
2. Plate Tectonics: A Scientific Revolution Unfolds
	2.1. From Continental Drift to Plate Tectonics
	2.2. Continental Drift: An Idea Before Its Time
		Evidence: The Continental Jigsaw Puzzle
		Evidence: Fossils Matching Across the Seas
		Evidence: Rock Types and Geologic Features
		Evidence: Ancient Climates
	2.3. The Great Debate
		Rejection of the Drift Hypothesis
	2.4. The Theory of Plate Tectonics
		Rigid Lithosphere Overlies Weak Asthenosphere
		Earth’s Major Plates
		Plate Movement
	2.5. Divergent Plate Boundaries and Seafloor Spreading
		Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading
		Continental Rifting
	2.6. Convergent Plate Boundaries and Subduction
		Oceanic–Continental Convergence
		Oceanic–Oceanic Convergence
		Continental–Continental Convergence
	2.7. Transform Plate Boundaries
	2.8. How Do Plates and Plate Boundaries Change?
		The Breakup of Pangaea
		Plate Tectonics in the Future
	2.9. Testing the Plate Tectonics Model
		Evidence: Ocean Drilling
		Evidence: Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots
		Evidence: Paleomagnetism
	2.10. How Is Plate Motion Measured?
		Geologic Measurement of Plate Motion
		Measuring Plate Motion from Space
	2.11. What Drives Plate Motions?
		Forces That Drive Plate Motion
		Models of Plate–Mantle Convection
	Concepts in Review
3. Matter and Minerals
	3.1. Minerals: Building Blocks of Rocks
		Defining a Mineral
		What Is a Rock?
	3.2. Atoms: Building Blocks of Minerals
		Properties of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
		Elements: Defined by Their Number of Protons
	3.3. Why Atoms Bond
		The Octet Rule and Chemical Bonds
		Ionic Bonds: Electrons Transferred
		Covalent Bonds: Electron Sharing
		Metallic Bonds: Electrons Free to Move
		Hybrid Bonds
	3.4. How Do Minerals Form?
		Precipitation of Mineral Matter
		Crystallization of Molten Rock
	GEOGraphics 3.1: Gold
		Deposition as a Result of Biological Processes
	3.5. Properties of Minerals
		Optical Properties
		Crystal Shape, or Habit
		Mineral Strength
		Density and Specific Gravity
		Other Properties of Minerals
	3.6. Mineral Structures and Compositions
		Mineral Structures
		Compositional Variations in Minerals
		Structural Variations in Minerals
	3.7. Mineral Groups
		Classifying Minerals
		Silicate Versus Nonsilicate Minerals
	3.8. The Silicates
		Silicate Structures
		Joining Silicate Structures
	3.9. Common Silicate Minerals
		The Light Silicates
		The Dark Silicates
	3.10. Important Nonsilicate Minerals
	GEOGraphics 3.2: Gemstones
	Concepts in Review
4. Magma, Igneous Rocks, and Intrusive Activity
	4.1. Magma: Parent Material of Igneous Rock
		The Nature of Magma
		From Magma to Crystalline Rock
		Igneous Processes
	4.2. Igneous Compositions
		Granitic (Felsic) Versus Basaltic (Mafic) Compositions
		Other Compositional Groups
		Silica Content as an Indicator of Composition
	4.3. Igneous Textures: What Can They Tell Us?
		Types of Igneous Textures
	4.4. Naming Igneous Rocks
		Granitic (Felsic) Igneous Rocks
		Andesitic (Intermediate) Igneous Rocks
		Basaltic (Mafic) Igneous Rocks
		Pyroclastic Rocks
	GEOGraphics 4.1: Granite: An Intrusive Igneous Rock
	4.5. Origin of Magma
		Generating Magma from Solid Rock
	4.6. How Magmas Evolve
		Bowen’s Reaction Series and the Composition of Igneous Rocks
		Magmatic Differentiation and Crystal Settling
		Assimilation and Magma Mixing
	4.7. Partial Melting and Magma Composition
		Formation of Basaltic Magma
		Formation of Andesitic and Granitic Magmas
	4.8. Intrusive Igneous Activity
		Nature of Intrusive Bodies
		Tabular Intrusive Bodies: Dikes and Sills
		Massive Intrusive Bodies: Batholiths, Stocks, and Laccoliths
	Concepts in Review
5. Volcanoes and Volcanic Hazards
	5.1. The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions
		Factors Affecting Viscosity
		Quiescent Versus Explosive Eruptions
	5.2. Materials Extruded During an Eruption
		Lava Flows
		GEOGraphics 5.1: Eruption of Mount St. Helens
		Gases
		Pyroclastic Materials
	5.3. Anatomy of a Volcano
	5.4. Shield Volcanoes
		Shield Volcanoes of Hawaii
		Evolution of Volcanic Islands
	5.5. Cinder Cones
	GEOGraphics 5.2: Kilauea’s East Rift Zone Eruption
		Parícutin: Life of a Garden-Variety Cinder Cone
	5.6. Composite Volcanoes
	5.7. Volcanic Hazards
		Pyroclastic Flow: A Deadly Force of Nature
		Lahars: Mudflows on Active and Inactive Cones
		Other Volcanic Hazards
	5.8. Other Volcanic Landforms
		Calderas
		Fissure Eruptions and Basalt Plateaus
		Lava Domes
		Volcanic Necks and Pipes
	5.9. Plate Tectonics and Volcanic Activity
		Volcanism at Convergent Plate Boundaries
		Volcanism at Divergent Plate Boundaries
		Intraplate Volcanism
	5.10. Monitoring Volcanic Activity
	Concepts in Review
6. Weathering and Soils
	6.1. Weathering
	6.2. Mechanical Weathering
		Frost Wedging
		Salt Crystal Growth
		Sheeting
	GEOGraphics 6.1: Some Everyday Examples of Weathering
	GEOGraphics 6.2: The Old Man of the Mountain
		Biological Activity
	6.3. Chemical Weathering
		Dissolution
		Oxidation
		Hydrolysis
		Spheroidal Weathering
	6.4. Rates of Weathering
		Rock Characteristics
		Climate
		Differential Weathering
	6.5. Soil
		An Interface in the Earth System
		What Is Soil?
		Soil Texture and Structure
	6.6. Controls of Soil Formation
		Parent Material
		Climate
		Plants and Animals
		Time
		Topography
	6.7. Describing and Classifying Soils
		The Soil Profile
		Classifying Soils
	6.8. The Impact of Human Activities on Soil
		Clearing the Tropical Rain Forest: A Case Study of Human Impact on Soil
		Soil Erosion: Losing a Vital Resource
	GEOGraphics 6.3: The 1930s Dust Bowl: An Environmental Disaster
	Concepts in Review
7. Sedimentary Rocks
	7.1. An Introduction to Sedimentary Rocks
		Importance
		Origins
	7.2. Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
		Shale
		Sandstone
		Conglomerate and Breccia
	7.3. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
		Limestone
	GEOGraphics 7.1: Limestone: An Important and Versatile Commodity
		Dolostone
		Chert
		Evaporites
	7.4. Coal: An Organic Sedimentary Rock
	7.5. Turning Sediment into Sedimentary Rock: Diagenesis and Lithification
		Diagenesis
		Lithification
	7.6. Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
	7.7. Sedimentary Rocks Represent Past Environments
		Types of Sedimentary Environments
		Sedimentary Facies
		Sedimentary Structures
	7.8. The Carbon Cycle and Sedimentary Rocks
	Concepts in Review
8. Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks
	8.1. What Is Metamorphism?
	8.2. What Drives Metamorphism?
		Heat as a Metamorphic Agent
		Confining Pressure
		Differential Stress
		Chemically Active Fluids
		The Importance of Parent Rock
	8.3. Metamorphic Textures
		Foliation
		Foliated Textures
		Other Metamorphic Textures
	8.4. Common Metamorphic Rocks
		Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
		Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks
	8.5. Metamorphic Environments
	GEOGraphics 8.1: Marble
		Contact, or Thermal, Metamorphism
		Hydrothermal Metamorphism
		Burial and Subduction Zone Metamorphism
		Regional Metamorphism
		Other Metamorphic Environments
	GEOGraphics 8.2: Impact Metamorphism
	8.6. Metamorphic Zones
		Textural Variations
		Index Minerals and Metamorphic Grade
	8.7. Interpreting Metamorphic Environments
		Common Metamorphic Facies
		Metamorphic Facies and Plate Tectonics
		Mineral Stability and Metamorphic Environments
	Concepts in Review
9. Geologic Time
	9.1. Creating a Time Scale: Relative Dating Principles
		The Importance of a Time Scale
		Numerical and Relative Dates
		Principle of Superposition
		Principle of Original Horizontality
		Principle of Lateral Continuity
		Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships
		Principle of Inclusions
		Unconformities
		Applying Relative Dating Principles
	GEOGraphics 9.1: Dating the Lunar Surface
	9.2. Fossils: Evidence of Past Life
		Types of Fossils
		Conditions Favoring Preservation
	GEOGraphics 9.2: How is paleontology different from archaeology?
	9.3. Correlation of Rock Layers
		Correlation Within Limited Areas
		Fossils and Correlation
	9.4. Numerical Dating with Radioactivity
		Reviewing Basic Atomic Structure
		Radioactivity
		Radiometric Dating
		Using Radioactive Isotopes
		Dating with Carbon-14
	9.5. The Geologic Time Scale
		Structure of the Time Scale
		Precambrian Time
		Terminology and the Geologic Time Scale
	9.6. Determining Numerical Dates for Sedimentary Strata
	Concepts in Review
10. Crustal Deformation
	10.1. What Causes Rock to Deform?
		Stress: The Force That Deforms Rocks
		Strain: A Change in Shape Caused by Stress
	10.2. How Do Rocks Deform?
		Types of Deformation
		Factors That Affect Rock Strength
		Ductile Versus Brittle Deformation and the Resulting Rock Structures
	10.3. Folds: Rock Structures Formed by Ductile Deformation
		Anticlines and Synclines
		Domes and Basins
		Monoclines
	10.4. Faults and Joints: Rock Structures Formed by Brittle Deformation
		Dip-Slip Faults
		Strike-Slip Faults
		Oblique-Slip Faults
		What Do Faults Have in Common?
	GEOGraphics 10.1: The San Andreas Fault System
		Joints
	10.5. Mapping Geologic Structures
		Strike and Dip
	Concepts in Review
11. Earthquakes and Earthquake Hazards
	11.1. What Is an Earthquake?
		Discovering the Causes of Earthquakes
		Aftershocks and Foreshocks
	11.2. Faults and Earthquakes
		Normal Faults and Divergent Plate Boundaries
		Thrust Faults and Convergent Plate Boundaries
		Strike-slip Faults and Transform Plate Boundaries
		Fault Rupture and Propagation
	11.3. Seismology: The Study of Earthquake Waves
		Instruments That Record Earthquakes
		Seismic Waves
	11.4. Locating the Source of an Earthquake
	11.5. Determining the Size of an Earthquake
		Intensity Scales
		Magnitude Scales
	11.6. Earthquake Destruction
		Destruction from Seismic Vibrations
		Landslides and Ground Subsidence
		Fire
		What Is a Tsunami?
	11.7. Where Do Most Earthquakes Occur?
		Earthquakes Associated with Plate Boundaries
		Damaging Earthquakes East of the Rockies
	11.8. Can Earthquakes Be Predicted?
		Short-Range Predictions
	GEOGraphics 11.1: Seismic Risks on the San Andreas Fault System
		Long-Range Forecasts
	Concepts in Review
12. Earth’s Interior
	12.1. Earth’s Internal Structure
		Gravity and Earth’s Layers
		How Does Gravity Affect Density?
	12.2. Probing Earth’s Interior
		“Seeing” Seismic Waves
		Seismic Velocities
		Interactions Between Seismic Waves and Earth’s Layers
	12.3. Earth’s Layers
		Crust
	GEOGraphics 12.1: Recreating the Deep Earth
		Mantle
		Core
	12.4. Earth’s Temperature
		Heat Flow
		Earth’s Temperature Profile
	12.5. Earth’s Three-Dimensional Structure
		Earth’s Gravity
		Seismic Tomography
		Earth’s Magnetic Field
	Concepts in Review
13. Origin and Evolution of the Ocean Floor
	13.1. An Emerging Picture of the Ocean Floor
		Mapping the Seafloor
		Provinces of the Ocean Floor
	13.2. Continental Margins
		Passive Continental Margins
		Active Continental Margins
	13.3. Features of Deep-Ocean Basins
		Deep-Ocean Trenches
		Abyssal Plains
		Volcanic Structures on the Ocean Floor
	GEOGraphics 13.1: Explaining Coral Atolls: Darwin’s Hypothesis
	13.4. Anatomy of the Oceanic Ridge
	13.5. Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading
		Seafloor Spreading
		Why Are Oceanic Ridges Elevated?
		Spreading Rates and Ridge Topography
	13.6. The Nature of Oceanic Crust
		How Does Oceanic Crust Form?
		Interactions Between Seawater and Oceanic Crust
	13.7. Continental Rifting: The Birth of a New Ocean Basin
		Evolution of an Ocean Basin
	GEOGraphics 13.2: Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents
		Mechanisms for Continental Rifting
	13.8. Destruction of Oceanic Lithosphere
		Why Oceanic Lithosphere Subducts
		Subducting Plates: The Demise of Ocean Basins
	Concepts in Review
14. Mountain Building
	14.1. Mountain Building
	14.2. Subduction Zones
		Features of Subduction Zones
		Extension and Back-Arc Spreading
	14.3. Subduction and Mountain Building
		Island Arc–Type Mountain Building
		Andean-Type Mountain Building
		Sierra Nevada, Coast Ranges, and Great Valley
	14.4. Collisional Mountain Belts
		Cordilleran-Type Mountain Building
		Alpine-Type Mountain Building: Continental Collisions
		The Himalayas
		The Appalachians
	14.5. Fault-Block Mountains
		The Basin and Range Province
	14.6. What Causes Earth’s Varied Topography?
		The Principle of Isostasy
		How Is Isostasy Related to Changes in Elevation?
	GEOGraphics 14.1: The Laramide Rockies
		How High Is Too High?
		Mantle Convection: A Cause of Vertical Crustal Movement
	Concepts in Review
15. Mass Wasting: The Work of Gravity
	15.1. The Importance of Mass Wasting
		Landslides as Geologic Hazards
		The Role of Mass Wasting in Landform Development
		Slopes Change Through Time
	GEOGraphics 15.1: Landslides as Natural Disasters
	15.2. Controls and Triggers of Mass Wasting
		The Role of Water
		Oversteepened Slopes
		Removal of Vegetation
		Earthquakes as Triggers
		Landslides Without Triggers?
	15.3. Classification of Mass-Wasting Processes
		Type of Material
		Type of Motion
	GEOGraphics 15.2: Landslide Risks: United States and Worldwide
		Rate of Movement
	15.4. Rapid Forms of Mass Wasting
		Slump
		Rockslide
		Debris Flow
		Earthflow
	15.5. Slow Movements
		Creep
		Solifluction
		The Sensitive Permafrost Landscape
	Concepts in Review
16. Running Water
	16.1. Earth as a System: The Hydrologic Cycle
	16.2. Running Water
		Drainage Basins
		River Systems
		Drainage Patterns
	16.3. Streamflow Characteristics
		Factors Affecting Flow Velocity
	GEOGraphics 16.1: What Are the Largest Rivers?
		Changes Downstream
	16.4. The Work of Running Water
		Stream Erosion
		Transport of Sediment by Streams
		Deposition of Sediment by Streams
	16.5. Stream Channels
		Bedrock Channels
		Alluvial Channels
	16.6. Shaping Stream Valleys
		Base Level and Graded Streams
		Valley Deepening
		Valley Widening
		Incised Meanders and Stream Terraces
	16.7. Depositional Landforms
		Deltas
		The Mississippi River Delta
		Natural Levees
		Alluvial Fans
	16.8. Floods and Flood Control
		Types of Floods
	GEOGraphics 16.2: Flash Floods
		Flood Recurrence Intervals
		Flood Control
	Concepts in Review
17. Groundwater
	17.1. The Importance of Groundwater
		Groundwater and the Hydrosphere
		Geologic Importance of Groundwater
		Groundwater: A Basic Resource
	17.2. Groundwater and the Water Table
		Distribution of Groundwater
		Variations in the Water Table
	17.3. Factors Influencing the Storage and Movement of Groundwater
		Porosity
		Permeability, Aquitards, and Aquifers
	17.4. How Groundwater Moves
		A Simple Groundwater Flow System
		Measuring Groundwater Movement
		Different Scales of Movement
	17.5. Wells and Artesian Systems
		Wells
		Artesian Systems
	17.6. Springs, Hot Springs, and Geysers
		Springs
		Hot Springs
		Geysers
	17.7. Environmental Problems
		Mining Groundwater
		Subsidence
	GEOGraphics 17.1: Drought Impacts the Hydrologic System
		Saltwater Intrusion
		Groundwater Contamination
	17.8. The Geologic Work of Groundwater
		Caverns
		Karst Topography
	Concepts in Review
18. Glaciers and Glaciation
	18.1. Glaciers: A Part of Two Basic Cycles
		Valley (Alpine) Glaciers
		Ice Sheets
		Other Types of Glaciers
	GEOGraphics 18.1: Antarctica Fact File
	18.2. Formation and Movement of Glacial Ice
		Glacial Ice Formation
		How Glaciers Move
		Observing and Measuring Movement
		Budget of a Glacier: Accumulation Versus Wastage
	18.3. Glacial Erosion
		How Glaciers Erode
		Landforms Created by Glacial Erosion
	18.4. Glacial Deposits
		Glacial Drift
		Landforms Made of Till
		Landforms Made of Stratified Drift
	18.5. Other Effects of Ice Age Glaciers
		Crustal Subsidence and Rebound
		Sea-Level Changes
		Changes to Rivers and Valleys
		Ice Dams Create Proglacial Lakes
		Pluvial Lakes
	18.6. The Ice Age
		Historical Development of the Glacial Theory
		Causes of Ice Ages
	Concepts in Review
19. Deserts and Wind
	19.1. Distribution and Causes of Dry Lands
		What Is Meant by Dry
		Subtropical Deserts and Steppes
		Middle-Latitude Deserts and Steppes
	19.2. Geologic Processes in Arid Climates
		Dry-Region Weathering
		The Role of Water
	19.3. Basin and Range: The Evolution of a Desert Landscape
	GEOGraphics 19.1: Common Misconceptions About Deserts
	19.4. Transportation of Sediment by Wind
		Bed Load
		Suspended Load
	19.5. Wind Erosion
		Deflation and Blowouts
		Desert Pavement
		Ventifacts and Yardangs
	19.6. Wind Deposits
		Sand Deposits
		Types of Sand Dunes
		Loess (Silt) Deposits
	Concepts in Review
20. Shorelines
	20.1. The Shoreline: A Dynamic Interface
		The Coastal Zone
		Basic Features of the Coastal Zone
	20.2. Ocean Waves
		Wave Characteristics
		Circular Orbital Motion
		Waves in the Surf Zone
	20.3. Shoreline Processes
		Wave Erosion
		Sand Movement on the Beach
	20.4. Shoreline Features
		Erosional Features
		Depositional Features
		The Evolving Shore
	20.5. Contrasting America’s Coasts
		Coastal Classification
		Altantic and Gulf Coasts
		Pacific Coast
	GEOGraphics 20.1: A Brief Tour of America’s Coasts
	20.6. Hurricanes: The Ultimate Coastal Hazard
		Profile of a Hurricane
		Hurricane Destruction
		Detecting and Tracking Hurricanes
	20.7. Stabilizing the Shore
		Hard Stabilization
		Alternatives to Hard Stabilization
	20.8. Tides
		Causes of Tides
		Monthly Tidal Cycle
		Tidal Patterns
		Tidal Currents
	Concepts in Review
21. Global Climate Change
	21.1. Climate and Geology
		The Climate System
		Climate–Geology Connections
	21.2. Detecting Climate Change
		Climates Change
		Proxy Data
		Seafloor Sediment: A Storehouse of Climate Data
		Oxygen Isotope Analysis
		Climate Change Recorded in Glacial Ice
		Tree Rings: Archives of Environmental History
		Other Types of Proxy Data
	21.3. Some Atmospheric Basics
		Composition of the Atmosphere
		Extent and Structure of the Atmosphere
	21.4. Heating the Atmosphere
		Energy from the Sun
		The Paths of Incoming Solar Energy
		Heating the Atmosphere: The Greenhouse Effect
	21.5. Natural Causes of Climate Change
		Plate Movements and Orbital Variations
		Volcanic Activity and Climate Change
		Solar Variability and Climate
	21.6. Human Impact on Global Climate
		Rising CO2 Levels
		The Atmosphere’s Response
		The Role of Trace Gases
		How Aerosols Influence Climate
	21.7. Climate-Feedback Mechanisms
		Types of Feedback Mechanisms
		Computer Models of Climate: Important yet Imperfect Tools
	21.8. Some Consequences of Global Warming
		Sea-Level Rise
		The Changing Arctic
		Increasing Ocean Acidity
		The Potential for “Surprises”
	Concepts in Review
22. Earth’s Evolution Through Geologic Time
	22.1. Is Earth Unique?
		The Right Planet
		The Right Location
		The Right Time
		Viewing Earth’s History
	22.2. Birth of a Planet
		From the Big Bang to Heavy Elements
		From Planetesimals to Protoplanets
		Earth’s Early Evolution
	22.3. Origin and Evolution of the Atmosphere and Oceans
		Earth’s Primitive Atmosphere
		Oxygen in the Atmosphere
		Evolution of the Oceans
	22.4. Precambrian History: The Formation of Earth’s Continents
		Earth’s First Continents
		The Making of North America
		Supercontinents of the Precambrian
	22.5. Geologic History of the Phanerozoic: The Formation of Earth’s Modern Continents
		Paleozoic History
		Mesozoic History
		Cenozoic History
	22.6. Earth’s First Life
		Origin of Life
		Earth’s First Life: Prokaryotes
	22.7. Paleozoic Era: Life Explodes
		Early Paleozoic Life-Forms
		Vertebrates Move to Land
		Reptiles: The First True Terrestrial Vertebrates
		The Great Permian Extinction
	22.8. Mesozoic Era: Age of the Dinosaurs
		Gymnosperms: The Dominant Mesozoic Trees
		Reptiles Take Over the Land, Sea, and Sky
		Demise of the Dinosaurs
	22.9. Cenozoic Era: Age of Mammals
		From Reptiles to Mammals
		Marsupial and Placental Mammals
		Humans: Mammals with Large Brains and Bipedal Locomotion
		Large Mammals and Extinction
	Concepts in Review
23. Energy and Mineral Resources
	23.1. Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources
	23.2. Energy Resources: Fossil Fuels
		Coal
	GEOGraphics 23.1: Coal: A Major Energy Source
		Oil and Natural Gas
	23.3. Nuclear Energy
		Uranium
		Concerns Regarding Nuclear Development
	23.4. Renewable Energy
		Solar Energy
		Wind Energy
		Hydroelectric Power
		Geothermal Energy
		Biomass: Renewable Energy from Plants and Animals
		Tidal Power
	23.5. Mineral Resources
	23.6. Igneous and Metamorphic Processes
		Magmatic Differentiation and Ore Deposits
		Hydrothermal Deposits
		Origin of Diamonds
		Metamorphic Processes
	23.7. Mineral Resources Related to Surface Processes
		Weathering and Ore Deposits
		Placer Deposits
	23.8. Nonmetallic Mineral Resources
		Building Materials
		Industrial Minerals
	Concepts in Review
24. Touring Our Solar System
	24.1. Our Solar System: An Overview
		Nebular Theory: Formation of the Solar System
		The Planets: Internal Structures and Atmospheres
		Planetary Impacts
	24.2. Earth’s Moon: A Chip off the Old Block
		How Did the Moon Form?
	24.3. Terrestrial Planets
		Mercury: The Innermost Planet
		Venus: The Veiled Planet
		Mars: The Red Planet
	GEOGraphics 24.1: Mars Exploration
	24.4. Jovian Planets
		Jupiter: Lord of the Heavens
		Saturn: The Elegant Planet
		Uranus and Neptune: Twins
	24.5. Small Solar System Bodies
		Asteroids: Leftover Planetesimals
	GEOGraphics 24.2: Is Earth on a Collision Course?
		Comets: Dirty Snowballs
		Meteoroids: Visitors to Earth
		Dwarf Planets
	Concepts in Review
Appendix A: Metric and English Units Compared
Glossary
Index