Drying in the Dairy Industry (Advances in Drying Science and Technology)

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Series Editor
Editors
Contributors
Chapter 1 Spray-dried dairy product categories
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 The fundamentals of the spray-drying process in the production of dairy products
	1.3 Spray-dried dairy powder products
		1.3.1 Conventional dairy powders
			1.3.1.1 Skim milk and non-fat milk powders
			1.3.1.2 Whole milk powders
		1.3.2 High protein milk powders
			1.3.2.1 Caseinate powders
			1.3.2.2 Milk protein concentrate and milk protein isolate (MPI) powders
		1.3.3 High fat dairy powders
			1.3.3.1 Cream powders
			1.3.3.2 Cheese powders
		1.3.4 Buttermilk powder
		1.3.5 Whey-based powders
			1.3.5.1 Whey powders
			1.3.5.2 Whey protein concentrate and whey protein isolate powders
		1.3.6 Microencapsulated dairy powders
		1.3.7 Infant milk formula
		1.3.8 Lactose hydrolyzed milk powder
	1.4 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 2 Technology, modeling and control of the processing steps
	2.1 Improvement of whey products spray-drying by use of membranes processes
		2.1.1 Introduction
		2.1.2 Membrane processes and their principles
			2.1.2.1 Pressure-driven membrane processes
			2.1.2.2 Electrically driven membrane processes
		2.1.3 Demineralization
			2.1.3.1 Demineralization by pressure-driven membrane technologies
			2.1.3.2 Demineralization by electrically driven membrane technologies
		2.1.4 Demineralization and delactosation
		2.1.5 Demineralization and deacidification
			2.1.5.1 Demineralization and deacidification by pressure-driven processes
			2.1.5.2 Demineralization and deacidification by electrically driven processes
		2.1.6 Conclusion
		Nomenclature
		Acknowledgments
		References
	2.2 Concentration by vacuum evaporation
		2.2.2 Concentration in falling-film evaporators
			2.2.2.1 Working principle of falling-film evaporators
			2.2.2.2 Design of multistage falling-film evaporators to increase energy efficiency
		2.2.3 Changes caused by vacuum concentration
		2.2.4 Heat transfer and film flow
		2.2.5 Fouling and cleaning of falling-film evaporators
			2.2.5.1 Fouling of evaporators
			2.2.5.2 Cleaning of evaporators
		2.2.6 Conclusion
		References
	2.3 Lactose crystallization of whey, permeate and lactose
		2.3.1 Introduction
		2.3.2 Lactose
			2.3.2.1 The different forms of lactose
			2.3.2.2 Lactose solubility
			2.3.2.3 Lactose supersaturation
			2.3.2.4 Metastability, induction time and nucleation
		2.3.3 Process
			2.3.3.1 Principal steps for the production of lactose powder
			2.3.3.2 Principal steps for the production of whey and permeate powders
		2.3.4 Conclusion
		References
	2.4 Homogenization: a key mechanical process in interaction with product to modulate the organization of fat in spray-dried powders
		2.4.1 Introduction
		2.4.2 Homogenization: the mechanical process commonly used to disperse fat in droplets
		2.4.3 Position of the homogenization process in the technological scheme of spray-dried powder production
		2.4.4 Organization of fat within spray-dried powders
			2.4.4.1 Physical stability of O/W emulsions
			2.4.4.2 Microstructure of fat-filled dairy powders: focus on fat organization
			2.4.4.3 Main parameters involved in the organization of fat within spray-dried powders
			2.4.4.4 Consequences of the organization of fat on the quality of the powder
		2.4.5 Homogenization for the preparation of nanostructured lipid carriers able to encapsulate bioactive compounds
		2.4.6 The key role played by homogenization in the preparation of infant milk formula
			2.4.6.1 Processed fat droplets in infant milk formula vs. milk fat globules in human milk
			2.4.6.2 Future directions in which to improve the structure of fat in IMF: the key role played by homogenization
		2.4.7 Conclusion
		References
	2.5 Technology, modeling and control of the processing steps in spray drying
		2.5.1 Principles of spray drying
		2.5.2 Spray-drying layout and operation
			2.5.2.1 Typical multi-stage layout
			2.5.2.2 Outlet temperature-based control
			2.5.2.3 Fines control and agglomeration
			2.5.2.4 Adjusting the feed viscosity
		2.5.3 Modeling of spray dryers
			2.5.3.1 One-dimensional approach
			2.5.3.2 Computational fluid dynamics approach
			2.5.3.3 Modeling of droplet drying
			2.5.3.4 Modeling of atomization
		2.5.4 Unique spray-drying technologies and explorations
			2.5.4.1 Single-droplet drying experiments to obtain drying kinetics and morphological changes
			2.5.4.2 Mono-disperse droplet spray-drying experiments to validate CFD and to obtain particles under well-controlled operating conditions
		2.5.5 Superheated steam spray drying
		2.5.6 Nomenclature
		References
	2.6 Agglomeration processes of dairy powders
		2.6.1 Introduction
		2.6.2 Agglomeration by spray drying
		2.6.3 Fluidized-bed agglomeration
		2.6.4 Steam-jet agglomeration
		References
	2.7 Product modification in a fluidized bed dryer
		2.7.1 Introduction
		2.7.2 Underlying physics
		2.7.3 Process integration
		2.7.4 Mathematical model of the process
		2.7.5 Particle structure
		2.7.6 Conclusion
		References
Chapter 3 Powder properties and influencing factors
	3.1 Glass transition and water activity
		3.1.1 Introduction
		3.1.2 Glass transition in dairy solids
			3.1.2.1 Lactose and dairy powders
			3.1.2.2 Water and dairy powders
		3.1.3 Water and water activity
			3.1.3.1 Water activity
			3.1.3.2 Water plasticization
			3.1.3.3 Water sorption
			3.1.3.4 Critical water activity
		3.1.4 Dehydration
		3.1.5 Structural relaxations and strength
		3.1.6 Conclusions
		References
	3.2 Caking of dairy powders
		3.2.1 Introduction
		3.2.2 Caking: definition, context, main issues
		3.2.3 Influential parameters and main mechanisms
		3.2.4 Classification and mechanisms of caking
		3.2.5 Mechanical (pressure-induced) caking
		3.2.6 Wet (or RH-induced) caking
			3.2.6.1 Origin and emergence of water within granular media
			3.2.6.2 Water–solid interactions
		3.2.7 Thermal (temperature-induced) caking
		3.2.8 Chemical (reaction-induced) caking (phase transition)
		3.2.9 Caking testing methods
		3.2.10 Special case of dairy and dairy-like emulsion powders
		3.2.11 Conclusion
		References
	3.3 Whey proteins pre-texturized by heating in dry state
		3.3.1 Introduction
		3.3.2 Whey protein modifications at the molecular level
		3.3.3 Aggregation and polymerization reactions
		3.3.4 Functional properties of spray-dried whey powders
			3.3.4.1 Viscosity and water-holding capacity
			3.3.4.2 Interfacial, foaming and emulsifying properties
			3.3.4.3 Heat-set gelling properties
		3.3.5 Conclusion
		References
	3.4 Physical properties of spray-dried dairy powders in relation with their flowability and rehydration capacity
		3.4.1 Introduction
		3.4.2 Powder physical properties
			3.4.2.1 Particle size, shape and density
			3.4.2.2 Particle microstructure
			3.4.2.3 Mechanical properties
		3.4.3 Powder flow properties: links with physical properties and characterization methods
			3.4.3.1 Powder flow properties: links with physical properties
			3.4.3.2 Characterization of powder flow properties
		3.4.4 Reconstitution properties: links with physical properties
		3.4.5 Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
		References
	3.5 The microbiology of milk powder processing
		3.5.1 Introduction
		3.5.2 Microbiota of raw milk
		3.5.3 Effects of processing on milk microbiota
			3.5.3.1 Centrifugation: clarification and fat standardization
			3.5.3.2 Heat treatment
			3.5.3.3 Homogenization
			3.5.3.4 Concentration
			3.5.3.5 Spray drying
		3.5.4 Contaminating microorganisms in milk powder
		3.5.5 Quality control
		References
Chapter 4 Innovations and prospects
	4.1 Infant and follow-on formulae
		4.1.1 Introduction to infant milk and follow-on formula
		4.1.2 Overview of wet processing
		4.1.3 Drying infant milk and follow-on formula
			4.1.3.1 Atomization and agglomeration
			4.1.3.2 Air supply
			4.1.3.3 Dehydration
			4.1.3.4 Air-powder separation
			4.1.3.5 Powder conveying
		4.1.4 Compositional considerations during product development
			4.1.4.1 Effect of recipe on emulsification/wet processing
			4.1.4.2 Bulk density/volume and scoop volume
			4.1.4.3 Effects of recipe on glass transition and stickiness during drying
			4.1.4.4 Fat-induced stickiness
		4.1.5 Conclusion
		References
	4.2 Lactose hydrolyzed milk powder
		4.2.1 Introduction
		4.2.2 The enzymatic lactose hydrolysis in milk
		4.2.3 Spray drying of concentrated milk with hydrolyzed lactose
		4.2.4 Problems associated with the production of lactose hydrolyzed milk powder
		4.2.5 Perspectives in the production of lactose hydrolyzed milk powder
		References
	4.3 Properties of functional camel milk powder
		4.3.1 Introduction
		4.3.2 Composition and properties of camel milk relevant to its drying
			4.3.2.1 Important bioactive compounds in camel milk
			4.3.2.2 Heat stability of camel milk
			4.3.2.3 Thermostability of camel milk proteins
		4.3.3 Spray-dried camel milk powder
			4.3.3.1 Potential application of spray drying in the production of camel milk powder
			4.3.3.2 Physiochemical properties of spray-dried camel milk powder and their changes during storage: a case study
		4.3.4 Conclusion and further outlook
		References
	4.4 How to produce dairy powders without the use of a drying tower
		4.4.1 Introduction
		4.4.2 Principle
		4.4.3 Results
		4.4.4 Conclusions and perspectives
		Acknowledgments
		References
	4.5 Prediction of spray-drying parameters: SD2P® software
		4.5.1 Introduction
		4.5.2 Drying by desorption
		4.5.3 Input parameters of the SD2P® program
			4.5.3.1 Total amount of desorbed water, total solid content of concentrate and powder dry matter
			4.5.3.2 Inlet AH0 and internal fluid bed (IFB) AH0
			4.5.3.3 Inlet AH1 and internal fluid bed (IFB) AH1
			4.5.3.4 Outlet AH2
			4.5.3.5 Energy losses
			4.5.3.6 Relative humidity of outlet air
			4.5.3.7 Bed drying
			4.5.3.8 Airflow rates
			4.5.3.9 Constant parameters of the program
		4.5.4 Output parameters of the SD2P® program
		4.5.5 Process improvement to avoid stickiness
		4.5.6 Conclusion
		References
	4.6 Spray drying of probiotics: towards a controlled and efficient process
		4.6.1 Introduction
		4.6.2 Results: discussion
		4.6.3 Conclusion
		References
Chapter 5 The drying of milk at the laboratory scale: From the industrial need to the scientific challenge
	5.1 Limitations of the drying process at the industrial scale
	5.2 Laboratory investigation of evaporation in dairy systems
		5.2.1 State of the art
		5.2.2 Single-droplet approach in simplified models of milk: the case of dairy protein mixes
	5.3 Microscopy and microfluidic opportunities for studying the drying of dairy protein droplets
		5.3.1 Drying-induced internal flows and colloid stratification
		5.3.2 Skin mechanical properties
		5.3.3 Skin microscopic structure
	References
Index