Drinking Water Quality: Problems and Solutions

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Preface to the second edition......Page 15
Acknowledgements......Page 18
Part I Introduction to Water Supply......Page 19
1.2 Water consumption......Page 21
1.3 Acceptable water quality......Page 25
1.4.1 Water undertakers and regulation in the UK......Page 28
1.4.2 Charges......Page 33
1.5.1 Water demand management......Page 36
1.5.2 Leak reduction in water mains......Page 38
1.5.3 Efficient water-using appliances and fixtures......Page 41
1.5.5 Linking water conservation to development......Page 44
1.5.6 Water charging and levies......Page 45
1.5.7 Planning sustainably......Page 46
1.5.8 Rainwater harvesting......Page 47
1.5.9 Water reuse......Page 48
1.5.10 Water-sensitive urban design......Page 49
1.5.12 Potential for water conservation in the home......Page 50
1.6 Conclusions......Page 51
References......Page 53
2.2 Development of quality standards......Page 55
2.3 Risk assessment in the development of health-based targets......Page 57
2.4.1 Development of WSPs......Page 60
2.4.2 Information required for WSP development......Page 63
2.4.3 Hazard identification and risk assessment......Page 65
2.4.4 Control measures......Page 67
2.4.5 Operational monitoring and management......Page 68
2.5.2 US National Primary and Secondary Drinking Water Standards......Page 70
2.5.3 European standards......Page 75
2.6 Conclusions......Page 81
References......Page 82
3.1 Introduction......Page 83
3.2 The problems......Page 84
3.2.2 Cancer......Page 85
3.2.4 Inorganic compounds......Page 88
3.2.5 Organic compounds......Page 89
3.3 Conclusions......Page 90
ReferencesReferences......Page 91
Part II Problems with the Resource......Page 93
4.2 The water cycle......Page 95
4.3.1 Surface water......Page 98
4.3.2 Water abstraction......Page 103
4.4.1 Groundwater supplies......Page 107
4.4.2 Aquifer classification......Page 108
4.4.3 Quality......Page 113
4.4.4 Demand and groundwater......Page 116
4.5 Other sources of water......Page 117
4.5.1 Use of poor quality resources......Page 119
4.5.2 Reuse and recycling......Page 120
4.5.3 Artificial recharge and aquifer management......Page 122
4.5.4 Water transfer......Page 124
4.5.5 Desalination......Page 126
4.5.6 Other options......Page 128
4.6 Conclusions......Page 130
References......Page 132
5.1 Sources in water......Page 134
5.2 Water quality standards......Page 137
5.3 Effect on consumers......Page 138
5.3.1 Infantile methaemoglobinaemia......Page 139
5.4 Nitrate in groundwaters......Page 141
5.5 Nitrate in surface waters......Page 143
5.6 Control of high-nitrate water......Page 144
5.6.1 Treatment options......Page 145
5.6.2 Control of agricultural sources of nitrate......Page 146
5.7 Conclusions......Page 150
References......Page 152
6.1 Organic micro-pollutants......Page 155
6.2.1 Classification......Page 157
6.2.2 The use of pesticides......Page 159
6.2.3 Levels in water......Page 162
6.2.4 Health effects......Page 172
6.2.5 Further considerations......Page 173
6.3 Industrial solvents......Page 174
6.4 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons......Page 178
6.5 Removal of organic contaminants from drinking water......Page 180
6.6 Conclusions......Page 181
References......Page 183
7.1 Introduction and definitions......Page 187
7.2 Pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs)......Page 189
7.3 Oestrogen and fertility......Page 192
7.4 Conclusions......Page 195
References......Page 197
8.2 Standards and assessment......Page 199
8.3 Classification......Page 201
8.4 Odour-causing substances of natural origin......Page 203
8.6 Conclusions......Page 206
References......Page 207
9.1 Iron......Page 209
9.2 Manganese......Page 211
9.3 Arsenic......Page 212
9.4.3 Chromium......Page 214
9.4.5 Molybdenum......Page 215
9.5.1 Iron and manganese......Page 216
9.6 Conclusions......Page 217
References......Page 218
10.2 Chemistry of hardness......Page 221
10.3 Standards......Page 223
10.4 Health aspects......Page 224
10.5 Conclusions......Page 225
References......Page 226
11.2 Problems associated with algae......Page 228
11.4 Treatment......Page 231
11.5 Conclusions......Page 232
References......Page 233
12.1 Introduction......Page 235
12.2 Radon......Page 236
12.3 Non-radon radionuclides......Page 237
12.4 Standards and treatment......Page 238
12.5 Conclusions......Page 240
References......Page 241
13.2.1 Cryptosporidium......Page 243
13.2.2 Giardia......Page 246
13.3 Viruses......Page 247
13.4.1 Salmonellosis......Page 249
13.4.2 Campylobacter......Page 250
13.4.4 Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli......Page 251
13.4.5 Cholera......Page 252
13.5 Unusual sources of contamination......Page 253
13.6 Conclusions......Page 255
References......Page 257
Part III Problems Arising From Water Treatment......Page 261
14.1 Introduction......Page 263
14.2.1 Preliminary screening......Page 264
14.2.3 Screening and microstraining......Page 265
14.2.4 Aeration......Page 266
14.2.5 Coagulation......Page 267
14.2.6 Flocculation......Page 268
14.2.8 Filtration......Page 269
14.2.11 Disinfection......Page 271
14.2.12 Softening and other tertiary (advanced) processes......Page 275
14.3 Process selection......Page 278
14.4 How problems arise......Page 279
14.5 Conclusions......Page 285
References......Page 286
15.1 Aluminium......Page 288
15.1.1 Levels in water......Page 292
15.1.2 Health effects......Page 293
15.2 Acrylamide......Page 295
15.3 Conclusions......Page 296
References......Page 297
16.1 Source of odour and taste problems......Page 300
16.2 Removing odours and tastes......Page 301
References......Page 303
17.1 Introduction......Page 304
17.2 Fluoride addition......Page 305
17.3 Fluoridation and health......Page 307
17.4 Fluoridation and public opinion......Page 309
17.5 Who is at risk......Page 310
17.6 Conclusions......Page 311
References......Page 313
18.1 Formation......Page 315
18.2 Standards......Page 318
18.3 Health risks......Page 319
18.4 Prevention of by-product formation......Page 320
18.5 Conclusions......Page 321
References......Page 322
19.2 Monitoring pathogens......Page 325
19.3 Measurement and standards......Page 326
19.4 Heterotrophic plate counts......Page 331
19.5.2 Viruses......Page 332
19.5.3 Protozoan cysts......Page 333
19.6 Disinfection......Page 334
19.7 Conclusions......Page 335
References......Page 338
Part IV Problems Arising in the Distribution Network......Page 341
20.2 Service reservoirs......Page 343
20.3 Water mains......Page 345
20.4 Service pipes......Page 346
20.5 Conclusions......Page 350
References......Page 351
21.1 Odour and taste......Page 352
21.2 Discolouration and iron......Page 353
21.3 Sediment and turbidity......Page 356
References......Page 358
22.1 The nature of asbestos......Page 360
22.2 Health effects and standards......Page 362
22.3 Asbestos cement distribution pipes......Page 363
22.4 Conclusions......Page 364
References......Page 366
23.1 Introduction......Page 368
23.2 Conclusions......Page 369
References......Page 370
24.1 Microbial slimes in distribution pipes......Page 371
24.2.1 Private supplies......Page 373
24.3 Common species and remedial measures......Page 374
24.3.1 Isopoda (e.g. Asellus aquaticus)......Page 375
24.3.3 Insecta (e.g. chironomid larvae)......Page 376
24.3.6 Mollusca (snails) (e.g. Potamopyrgus jenkinsi)......Page 377
24.3.9 Terrestrial animals (e.g. slugs and earthworms)......Page 378
24.4 Sampling water mains for animals......Page 379
24.5 Microbial pathogens and invertebrates......Page 380
24.6 Conclusions......Page 381
References......Page 382
25.2 Microbial contamination......Page 384
25.3 Control......Page 387
25.5 Conclusions......Page 388
References......Page 389
Part V Problems in Household Plumbing Systems......Page 391
26.2 Plumbing systems......Page 393
26.3 Water Byelaws and regulations......Page 398
References......Page 399
27.2 Corrosion......Page 400
27.2.1 Factors affecting corrosion......Page 402
27.2.2 Prevention......Page 403
27.2.3 Problems arising from corrosion......Page 404
27.3.1 Sources of lead......Page 405
27.3.2 Intake of lead and health effects......Page 407
27.3.3 Standards......Page 409
27.3.4 Levels in water......Page 410
27.3.5 Factors affecting lead levels......Page 411
27.3.6 Remedial measures......Page 415
27.3.7 Babies and lead......Page 417
27.4 Copper......Page 418
27.6 Conclusions......Page 421
References......Page 422
28.1 Micro-organisms in plumbing systems......Page 425
28.1.1 Legionnaires' disease......Page 427
28.2 Fibres, including asbestos......Page 428
28.3 Odour and taste......Page 429
28.4 Conclusions......Page 430
References......Page 431
Part VI The Water We Drink......Page 433
29.2 Bottled water......Page 435
European Union......Page 437
USA......Page 439
29.2.2 Mineral content......Page 440
29.3.1 Physical filtration and activated carbon......Page 446
29.3.2 Reverse osmosis......Page 450
29.3.4 Disinfection......Page 452
29.3.5 Other systems......Page 453
29.4 Water harvesting......Page 454
29.5 Conclusions......Page 456
References......Page 459
30.1 Introduction......Page 460
30.3 Developing security plans......Page 462
30.3.2 Operational......Page 463
30.3.3 Infrastructural......Page 464
30.4 The emergency response plan......Page 465
30.5 Conclusions......Page 468
References......Page 469
31.1 Introduction......Page 471
31.2 Complaints......Page 472
31.3 Public perception of drinking water quality......Page 473
31.4 The quality of drinking water......Page 475
31.5 Water usage and conservation......Page 478
31.7.1 Water scarcity......Page 479
31.7.2 Water quality problems......Page 481
31.8 Conclusions......Page 483
References......Page 486
Appendix 1 EC Drinking Water Directive (98/83/EEC) quality parameters......Page 487
Appendix 2 US National Primary and Secondary Drinking Water Standards of the US Environmental Protection Agency (2006)......Page 489
Appendix 3 World Health Organization drinking water guide values for chemicals of health significance. Health-related guide values have not been set for a number of chemicals that are not considered hazardous at concentrations normally found in drinking water, although some of these compounds may lead to consumer complaints on aesthetic grounds. These are listed in Table 2.6......Page 506
Appendix 4 Major pesticides and their degradation (breakdown) products with their relative toxicity limits in drinking water. The toxicity is based on limits set originally by the Federal Health Authority in the former Federal Republic of Germany (Miller et al., 1990), where category A pesticides should not exceed 1 µg l-1, category B 3µgL-1 and category C 10 µgL-1......Page 510
Appendix 5 EC Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) Priority Substances......Page 514
Appendix 6 List I and List II substances covered by the EC Dangerous Substances Directive (76/464/EEC)......Page 516
Appendix 7 The USEPA second Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate List (CCL) Published in February 2005......Page 517
Glossary......Page 519
Index......Page 526