Drinking Water and Health volume 9

Title page
......Page 2
Copyright......Page 3
Contents......Page 4
Preface......Page 6
Historical Note......Page 10
Importance of Water Filtration......Page 11
Chlorination, The Most Significant Advance in Water Treatment......Page 13
Summary......Page 15
REFERENCES......Page 17
INTRODUCTION......Page 18
WATER CONSUMPTION......Page 20
MICROBIOLOGICAL CONTAMINANTS......Page 21
PARTICULATE CONTAMINANTS......Page 22
ORGANIC SOLUTES......Page 23
RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINANTS......Page 25
REFERENCES......Page 26
II Chemical Contaminants: Safety And Risk Assessment......Page 28
EFFECTS ON HEALTH......Page 31
Reversibility of Chemical Injury......Page 32
Perspectives and Perceptions of Effects......Page 33
Reversible Effects......Page 35
Summary of Principles for Extrapolating Animal Toxicity To Humans......Page 36
The General Problem of Extrapolation......Page 38
Specific Problems in Extrapolation......Page 39
Size of Animals......Page 40
Absorption......Page 41
Excretion and Reabsorption......Page 42
Design of Laboratory Experiments on Animals......Page 43
Current Capability to Extrapolate......Page 44
Biological Considerations......Page 46
Examination of Experimental Dose-Response Curves......Page 47
Statistical Considerations......Page 48
Dose-Response Models......Page 56
Appropriateness of Data for Low-Dose Extrapolation......Page 57
INTERACTIONS......Page 58
SUMMARY—CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS: SAFETY AND RISK ASSESSMENT......Page 61
Effects in Animals, Properly Qualified, are Applicable to Man......Page 62
Methods do not Now Exist to Establish a Threshold for Long-Term Effects of Toxic Agents......Page 63
The Exposure of Experimental Animals to Toxic Agents in High Doses is a Necessary and Valid Method of Discovering Possible.........Page 64
Material Should be Assessed in Terms of Human Risk, Rather Than as "Safe" or "Unsafe"......Page 65
Principles To Be Used for Noncarcinogens and Nonmutagens......Page 66
RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS......Page 67
REFERENCES......Page 68
EPIDEMIOLOGY......Page 72
BACTERIA......Page 75
Number of Cells Required to Infect......Page 76
Estimation of Disease Potential by Direct Quantitation of Bacterial Pathogens......Page 78
Indicator Organisms......Page 79
Escherichia Coli and the Coliform Group......Page 80
Some Deficiencies of Coliforms as Indicator Organisms......Page 82
Other Indicator Organisms......Page 83
Rapid Methods for Coliform Counts......Page 84
Sampling for the Coliform Test......Page 85
International Standards......Page 87
Statistical Limits......Page 88
The Health Significance of the Coliform Test......Page 89
Conclusion on Coliform Standard......Page 93
The Standard Plate Count......Page 94
Recommendations for Research on Bacterial Contaminants......Page 96
VIRUSES......Page 97
History of the Enteric Viruses......Page 98
Epidemiology......Page 100
Factors Influencing Recovery......Page 103
Cell-Culture Systems for Detection......Page 104
Recovery Procedures for Virus in Finished Water......Page 105
Identification of Viruses Recovered from Water......Page 106
Perspectives in Testing Large-Volume Samples......Page 109
Health Effects of Viruses in Drinking Water......Page 110
Virus Removal in Water Treatment......Page 113
Filtration and Sorption......Page 115
Disinfection......Page 116
Chlorination......Page 117
Ozonation......Page 118
Bacterial Indicators and Viruses in Drinking Water......Page 119
Research Recommendations......Page 120
Protozoa......Page 121
Facultatively Parasitic Amebae......Page 122
Giardiasis......Page 123
Helminths......Page 124
Conclusions......Page 126
SUMMARY—MICROBIOLOGY OF DRINKING WATER......Page 127
Bacteria......Page 128
Parasites......Page 129
REFERENCES......Page 130
INTRODUCTION......Page 144
CLAY PARTICLES AND THEIR INTERACTIONS......Page 145
Inorganic Pollutants......Page 147
Organic Pollutants......Page 149
Summary......Page 152
Structure and Nomenclature......Page 153
Mineralogy......Page 154
Surface Properties......Page 156
Solubility......Page 159
Occurrence of Asbestos and Fibrous Minerals......Page 160
Uses and Redistribution......Page 161
Introduction......Page 164
Electron Microscopy......Page 165
Differential Thermal Analysis......Page 168
Epidemiological Findings......Page 169
Experimental Studies......Page 172
ORGANIC PARTICULATE IN WATER......Page 177
Organic Matter Associated with Soil Particles......Page 178
Municipal and Industrial Wastes......Page 183
Organic Colloids......Page 186
MICROORGANISMS AND SUSPENDED PARTICLES IN WATER......Page 188
Particulate-Bacterial Interactions......Page 189
Particulate-Viral Interactions in Water......Page 190
Aggregation and Survival......Page 191
Definitions and Occurrence......Page 192
Clay......Page 193
Halomethanes and Other Chlorinated Organics......Page 194
Organic Coagulants......Page 195
Turbidity......Page 196
SUMMARY—SOLID PARTICLES IN SUSPENSION......Page 197
Direct Effects on Health......Page 198
Turbidity as an Indicator......Page 199
Recommendations for Future Research......Page 200
Clay Particles and their Interactions......Page 201
Asbestos: Nomenclature, Occurrence, and Redistribution in Water......Page 202
Asbestos Fiber Sampling and Analysis......Page 204
Biological Effects of Asbestos Minerals, Epidemiological Findings......Page 205
Biological Effects of Asbestos Minerals, Experimental Studies......Page 206
Organic Particulates in Water......Page 208
Microorganisms and Suspended Particles in Water......Page 211
Particulate Removal and Turbidity......Page 212
TRACE METALS......Page 214
Trace Metals in Water Samples Collected in the Distribution System or at Household Taps......Page 215
Trace Metals in Finished Water Supplies......Page 218
Occurrence of Trace Metals in Raw Water Supplies......Page 220
Cadmium......Page 221
Cobalt......Page 222
Manganese......Page 223
Silver......Page 224
Geographical and Local Factors......Page 225
Chemical Coagulation......Page 226
Lime Softening......Page 230
Activated Carbon......Page 233
Ion Exchange......Page 234
Analysis of Drinking Water for Trace Metals......Page 235
Sample Treatment......Page 236
Analysis......Page 237
Chemical Characteristics......Page 238
Analysis......Page 239
Occurrence......Page 240
Chemical Characteristics......Page 241
Health Effects......Page 242
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 244
Occurrence......Page 245
Chemical Characteristics......Page 246
Health Effects......Page 247
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 249
Chemical Characteristics......Page 250
Metabolism......Page 251
Health Effects......Page 252
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 254
Occurrence......Page 255
Metabolism......Page 256
Health Effects......Page 257
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 258
Occurrence......Page 259
Chemical Characteristics......Page 260
Health Effects......Page 261
Analysis......Page 262
Occurrence......Page 263
Chemical Characteristics......Page 265
Metabolism......Page 266
Health Effects......Page 267
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 269
Occurrence......Page 270
Metabolism......Page 271
Health Effects......Page 272
Conclusions And Recommendations......Page 273
Chemical Characteristics......Page 274
Metabolism......Page 275
Health Effects......Page 276
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 278
Occurrence......Page 279
Chemical Characteristics......Page 282
Health Effects......Page 283
Analysis......Page 286
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 287
Occurrence......Page 288
Metabolism......Page 290
Health Effects......Page 291
Conclusions And Recommendations......Page 293
Occurrence......Page 294
Metabolism......Page 295
Health Effects......Page 296
Analysis......Page 297
Occurrence......Page 298
Metabolism......Page 299
Health Effects......Page 300
Occurrence......Page 301
Health Effects......Page 303
Analysis......Page 304
Chemical Characteristics......Page 305
Health Aspects......Page 306
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 307
Occurrence......Page 308
Health Effects......Page 309
Analysis......Page 310
Summary—Trace Metals......Page 311
Barium......Page 313
Beryllium......Page 314
Chromium......Page 315
Copper......Page 317
Lead......Page 318
Manganese......Page 320
Mercury......Page 321
Molybdenum......Page 322
Silver......Page 323
Zinc......Page 324
Occurrence......Page 325
Excretion......Page 328
Health Effects......Page 329
Toxic Effects in Humans......Page 330
Carcinogenicity......Page 335
Mutagenicity......Page 340
Toxic Effects in Animals......Page 342
Carcinogenicity......Page 345
Teratogenicity......Page 348
Interactions......Page 349
Determination of Arsenic in Drinking Water......Page 350
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 351
Recommendations for Research......Page 352
Occurrence......Page 353
Distribution......Page 359
Excretion......Page 360
Biotransformation......Page 361
Toxic Effects in Humans......Page 363
Therapeutic Uses......Page 364
Domestic Animal......Page 365
Laboratory Animals......Page 366
Carcinogenicity......Page 368
Reproduction......Page 370
Interactions......Page 371
Beneficial Effects......Page 373
Analysis......Page 374
Biological Samples......Page 375
Reliability......Page 376
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 377
Occurrence......Page 378
Addition of Fluoride to Water Supplies......Page 379
Food......Page 380
Metabolism......Page 382
Acute Effects......Page 385
Mongolism......Page 386
Sensitivity to Fluoride......Page 387
Renal Patients......Page 388
Cancer......Page 390
Mutagenesis, Teratogenesis, Birth Defects......Page 398
Mottling......Page 404
General Epidemiological Studies......Page 406
Summary and Conclusions......Page 407
Research Recommendations......Page 408
Occurrence......Page 409
Daily Intake of Sodium Ion......Page 410
Metabolism......Page 411
Animal Experiments......Page 412
Clinical Studies in Hypertensive Human Subjects......Page 414
Epidemiologic Studies......Page 415
Adult Patients Requiring Low-Sodium Diets......Page 418
Summary and Recommendations......Page 419
Occurrence......Page 420
Other Sources of Nitrate......Page 423
Metabolism......Page 424
Health Aspects......Page 425
Analysis......Page 432
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 433
Occurrence......Page 434
Health Aspects......Page 435
Other Aspects......Page 436
Arsenic......Page 437
Selenium......Page 439
Fluoride......Page 442
Sodium......Page 444
Nitrate......Page 445
Introduction......Page 448
Protective Effect from Bulk Constituents of Hard Water......Page 450
Protective Action of Trace Elements in Hard Water......Page 451
Other Factors and Confounding Variables......Page 452
Summary—Water Hardness and Health......Page 455
REFERENCES FOR TRACE METALS......Page 456
REFERENCES FOR ARSENIC AND SELENIUM......Page 469
REFERENCES FOR FLUORIDE, SODIUM, NITRATE, AND SULFATE......Page 483
REFERENCES FOR WATER HARDNESS AND HEALTH......Page 497
Selection of Agents......Page 498
Evaluation of Toxicity......Page 499
Conclusions......Page 501
Introduction......Page 502
Metabolism......Page 503
Acute Effects......Page 504
Carcinogenicity......Page 505
Teratogenicity......Page 506
Introduction......Page 508
Metabolism......Page 510
Acute Effects......Page 511
Subchronic and Chronic Effects......Page 512
Mutagenicity......Page 514
Teratogenicity.......Page 515
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 517
Introduction......Page 518
Acute Effects......Page 522
Subchronic and Chronic Effects......Page 523
Teratogenicity......Page 524
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 525
Chronic Effects......Page 528
Introduction......Page 530
Metabolism......Page 531
Subchronic and Chronic Effects......Page 532
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 533
Introduction......Page 534
Subchronic and Chronic Effects......Page 536
Introduction......Page 537
Acute Effects......Page 538
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 541
Introduction......Page 542
Acute Toxicity......Page 544
Reproduction......Page 545
Introduction......Page 546
Subchronic and Chronic Effects......Page 549
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 550
Introduction......Page 552
Chronic Effects......Page 553
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 554
Introduction......Page 556
Observations in Man......Page 557
Subchronic and Chronic Effects......Page 558
Carcinogenicity......Page 559
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 560
Metabolism......Page 562
Inhalation Toxicity......Page 563
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 564
Introduction......Page 565
Cyclodienes in Milk......Page 568
Food Chain Effects......Page 569
Metabolism......Page 570
Chlordane......Page 571
Observations in Man......Page 572
Chronic Effects......Page 573
Carcinogenicity......Page 574
Reproduction......Page 575
Carcinogenic Risk Estimates......Page 576
Introduction......Page 577
Metabolism and Degradation......Page 584
Observations in Man......Page 585
Carcinogenicity......Page 586
Carcinogenic Risk Estimates......Page 587
Introduction......Page 588
Metabolism......Page 590
Mutagenicity......Page 591
Introduction......Page 592
Metabolism......Page 594
Observations in Man......Page 595
Subchronic and Chronic Effects......Page 596
Carcinogenicity......Page 597
Reproduction......Page 599
Carcinogenic Risk Estimates......Page 600
Introduction......Page 601
Observations in Man......Page 602
Chronic Effects and Carcinogenicity......Page 605
Carcinogenic Risk Estimates......Page 606
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 608
Metabolism......Page 609
Subchronic and Chronic Effects......Page 610
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 612
Metabolism......Page 613
Subchronic and Chronic Effects......Page 614
Teratogenicity......Page 615
Introduction......Page 616
Metabolism......Page 618
Subchronic and Chronic Effects......Page 619
Mutagenicity......Page 620
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 621
Introduction......Page 622
Metabolism......Page 624
Acute Effects......Page 625
Reproduction......Page 626
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 628
Introduction......Page 629
Metabolism......Page 630
Observations in Man......Page 631
Subchronic and Chronic Effects......Page 632
Reproduction......Page 633
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 634
Introduction......Page 635
Metabolism......Page 636
Acute Effects......Page 639
Subchronic and Chronic Effects......Page 640
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 642
Introduction......Page 644
Metabolism......Page 646
Observations in Man......Page 647
Subchronic and Chronic Effects......Page 648
Reproduction......Page 649
Carcinogenicity......Page 650
Introduction......Page 652
Metabolism......Page 653
Acute Effects......Page 654
Mutagenicity......Page 655
Reproduction......Page 656
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 658
Introduction......Page 659
Metabolism......Page 660
Acute Effects......Page 661
Chronic Effects......Page 662
Carcinogenicity......Page 663
Carcinogenic Risk Estimates for ETU......Page 665
Introduction......Page 666
Metabolism......Page 670
Subchronic and Chronic Effects......Page 671
Mutagenicity......Page 672
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 674
Introduction......Page 676
Metabolism......Page 677
Subchronic and Chronic Effects......Page 678
Mixed-Function Oxidase Activity and Porphyria......Page 680
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 681
Introduction......Page 682
Metabolism......Page 684
Subchronic and Chronic Effects......Page 685
Mutagenicity......Page 686
Carcinogenicity......Page 687
Carcinogenic Risk Estimates......Page 688
Introduction......Page 690
Observations in Man......Page 691
Subchronic and Chronic Effects......Page 692
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 694
Observations in Man......Page 695
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 696
Chronic Effects......Page 697
Mutagenicity......Page 698
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 699
Mutagenicity......Page 700
Carcinogenic Risk Estimates......Page 701
Observations in Man......Page 702
Introduction......Page 704
Teratogenicity......Page 705
Observations in Man......Page 706
Introduction......Page 707
Chronic Effects......Page 708
Metabolism......Page 709
Acute Effects......Page 710
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 711
Observations in Man......Page 712
Chronic Effects......Page 713
Carcinogenic Risk Estimates......Page 714
Introduction......Page 716
Mutagenicity......Page 717
Metabolism......Page 718
Introduction......Page 719
Mutagenicity......Page 720
Carcinogenic Risk Estimates......Page 721
Metabolism......Page 722
Carcinogenicity......Page 724
Carcinogenic Risk Estimates......Page 725
Metabolism......Page 726
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 728
Observations in Man......Page 729
Reproduction......Page 730
Metabolism......Page 732
Mutagenicity......Page 733
Acute Effects......Page 734
Introduction......Page 735
Chronic Effects......Page 736
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 738
Carcinogenicity......Page 739
Metabolism......Page 740
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 742
Chronic Effects......Page 743
Metabolism......Page 744
Acute Effects......Page 745
Mutagenicity......Page 746
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 748
Acute Effects......Page 749
Introduction......Page 750
Chronic Effects......Page 751
Introduction......Page 752
Chronic Effects......Page 753
Metabolism......Page 754
Teratogenicity......Page 755
Observations in Man......Page 756
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 758
Observations in Man......Page 759
Subchronic and Chronic Effects......Page 760
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 762
Teratogenicity......Page 763
Acute Effects......Page 764
Introduction......Page 765
Observations in Man......Page 766
Subchronic and Chronic Effects......Page 767
Teratogenicity......Page 768
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 769
Observations in Man......Page 770
Introduction......Page 772
Acute Effects......Page 773
Introduction......Page 774
Observations in Man......Page 776
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 777
Acute Effects......Page 778
Introduction......Page 779
Observations in Man......Page 780
Carcinogenicity......Page 781
Metabolism......Page 782
Teratogenicity......Page 783
Observations in Man......Page 784
Teratogenicity......Page 785
Observations in Man......Page 786
Carcinogenicity......Page 787
Carcinogenic Risk Estimates......Page 788
Metabolism......Page 790
Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 791
Metabolism......Page 792
Mutagenicity......Page 793
Carcinogenic Risk Estimates......Page 794
Metabolism......Page 796
Subchronic and Chronic Effects......Page 797
SUMMARY—ORGANIC SOLUTES......Page 798
Noncarcinogenic Toxicity......Page 802
RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS......Page 804
Carcinogen......Page 809
Criteria in Experimental Animal Studies......Page 810
Adverse Response......Page 811
Safety Factor or Uncertainty Factor......Page 812
References—Pesticides......Page 813
REFERENCES—OTHER ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS......Page 845
BACKGROUND RADIATION......Page 866
ABUNDANCE OF RADIONUCLIDES IN WATER......Page 867
Sources of High-Let Radiation......Page 868
Radiopharmaceuticals......Page 871
RADIATION DOSE CALCULATIONS......Page 874
ISOTOPES OF ALKALINE EARTH ELEMENTS......Page 875
DOSES FROM WATER OF SPECIFIED COMPOSITION......Page 879
Developmental and Teratogenic Effects......Page 881
Genetic Effects......Page 883
Basis for Estimating Genetic Risk in Man......Page 886
Reconsideration of the Beir Committee's Estimates......Page 890
Somatic Effects......Page 893
Radiobiological Basis for Evaluation of Cancer Risk......Page 894
Risk Estimates for Specific Cancers......Page 898
RISKS FROM RADIOACTIVE DRINKING WATER......Page 901
Somatic Risks......Page 903
SUMMARY—RADIOACTIVITY IN DRINKING WATER......Page 905
Somatic and Carcinogenic Effects......Page 906
FUTURE NEEDS......Page 907
Glossary......Page 908
REFERENCES......Page 909
ABRIDGED SUMMARY OF THE LEGISLATION......Page 914
NEED FOR LEGISLATION......Page 915
THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES STUDY......Page 916
SCOPE OF WORK......Page 917
NAS-NRC Staff......Page 920
Subcommittee on Trace Metals......Page 921
Subcommittee on Pesticides......Page 922
Advisers, Consultants, and Contributors......Page 923
EPA Liaison Representatives......Page 924
Appendix C Executive Summary......Page 926
Index......Page 930