Disproportionality and Social Justice in Education

Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
Contributors
Part I: Foundations: Understanding Disproportionality in Historical, Legal, Theoretical, and Methodological Terms
	Chapter 1: Ever Since Little Rock: The History of Disciplinary Disparities in America’s Schools
		History and Structural Racism
		The Ordeal of Desegregation: America After Brown
			1954–1964: Massive Resistance
			1964–1972: The Beginnings of Desegregation
		The End of Massive Resistance: The Beginning of Disproportionality
			Segregation’s New Form?
			Overall Black–White Suspension Disparities
			Increased Disciplinary Disproportionality After School Desegregation
		Explanations for Post-segregation Increases in Disproportionality
			Student Behavior and Parent/Community Failure
			Systemic Issues
			Black Student/White Teacher Mismatch
			Fading of the Desegregation Consensus
		The War on Drugs and Zero Tolerance: Mass Incarceration and Mass Exclusion
			Origins of the War on Drugs
		Zero Tolerance and School Policing in the Context of the War on Drugs
			Disproportionate Impact on Black and Brown Students
		Discussion: Exclusionary Discipline as Third-Generation Segregation
		Summary and Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 2: Civil Rights and the Birth of Special Education
		Prohibiting Discrimination: Action in the Courts
			Plessey v. Ferguson and the Separate but Equal Doctrine
			Brown v. Board of Education and the End of Separate but Equal Doctrine
		Students with Disabilities and the Right to Education Cases
			Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children v. Pennsylvania (1972)
			Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia (1972)
		Prohibiting Discrimination and Ensuring the Educational Rights of Students with Disabilities: Federal Legislation
			The Civil Rights Act of 1964
			The Elementary and Secondary Act of 1965
			The Education of the Handicapped Act
		Two Federal Paths to Improve the Education of Students with Disabilities
			The Nondiscrimination Path: Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act
			The Educational Grant Path: Education for All Handicapped Children Act
			Amendments to the Education for All Handicapped Children Act
			The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
		Prohibiting Discrimination and Ensuring the Educational Rights of Students with Disabilities: Federal Regulations
			Regulations and the Civil Rights Act of 1964
			Regulations and the Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973
			Regulations and Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
		Reshaping Educational Policy to Advance Social Justice
		References
	Chapter 3: Theoretical Perspectives Guiding the Study of Disproportionality in Education
		Important But Atheoretical: Descriptive Approaches to Studying Disproportionality
			Descriptive, Sociodemographic Approaches
		Moving Beyond Description: Incorporating Theory to Explain Disproportionality
			Disability Studies and Disproportionality
			Critical Approaches and Disproportionality
				Critical Race Theory
				Dis/ability Critical Race Studies
				QuantCrit
			Structural Theory and Disproportionality
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 4: Methodological Issues and Debates in the Study of Disproportionality in Education
		Policy and Research
		Descriptive Metrics
			Comparative Metrics: Effect Sizes
			Other Comparative Metrics
		Comparing Different Disproportionality Research Approaches
		Addressing Issues of Rigor and Control Variables
		Conclusion
		References
Part II: Understanding Disproportionality Through Contemporary Data
	Chapter 5: Disciplinary Exclusions
		Disparities in Disciplinary Exclusions
		Consequences of Disciplinary Exclusions
		Advancing Empirical Evidence of Disproportionate Discipline: An In-Depth Analysis of the 2017–2018 Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC)
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 6: Bullying Victimization and Perpetration
		Disproportionate Involvement in Bullying
		Harassment Versus Bullying
		Advancing Empirical Evidence of Disproportionate Bullying: An In-Depth Analysis of the 2017–2018 Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC)
		Current State of Disproportionate Disciplinary Exclusions
		References
	Chapter 7: Seclusion and Restraint
		History of Seclusion and Restraint
		Concerns with Seclusion and Restraint in Schools
		Lack of Policies or Guidelines
		Disproportionate Use of Seclusion and Restraint
		Inappropriate Use of Seclusion and Restraint
		Safety Concerns over Seclusion and Restraint
		Excessive Use of Seclusion and Restraint
		Emotional Trauma
		Lack of Research Support
		Legal Issues Regarding Seclusion and Restraint
		National Trends on Seclusion and Restraints: An in Depth Analysis of the 2017–2018 Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC)
		Recommendations
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 8: Corporal Punishment
		Legal Precedence on Corporal Punishment
		The Effects of Corporal Punishment on Children
		Disproportionate Use of Corporal Punishment
		Advancing Empirical Evidence of Disproportionate Corporal Punishment: An In-Depth Analysis of the 2017–2018 Civil Rights Collection Data (CRDC)
		Current State of Disproportionate Disciplinary Exclusions
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 9: School-Based Law Enforcement Referrals and Arrests
		Referral to Law Enforcement and Arrests
		School Resource Officers
		The School-to-Prison Pipeline
		Zero-Tolerance Policies
		State Disorderly Laws
		Advancing Empirical Evidence of Disproportionate Arrests: An In-Depth Analysis of the 2017–2018 Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC)
		Current State of Law Enforcement Referrals and Arrests: Implications for Practice
		References
	Chapter 10: Academic Achievement
		Advancing Empirical Evidence of Disproportionate Academic Achievement: An In-Depth Analysis of the 2017–2018 Civil Rights Collection Data (CRDC)
		Measures
			Advanced Placement Courses
			Data Analysis
			Results
		Current State of Disproportionate Enrollment in AP Courses
		References
Part III: Addressing Disproportionality: The Current Moment and Beyond
	Chapter 11: A Movement Toward Equity and Social Justice: Grounded in Theory, Realized in Practice
		Children, Equity, and Social Justice
		Inequity and Disproportionality in Education
			Segregation Occurring Through Twenty-First Century Education Practices
				Education Funding
				Identification and Academic Placements
				Exclusionary Discipline
			Life Trajectories and Societal Perceptions
		Theories Framing the Movement and What We Know
			Critical Race Theory
			Intersectionality
			Systems Theory
		Realizing Social Justice in Education and Practice
		Addressing Bias and Culturally Responsive Teaching
			Recruitment and Retention
			Professional Learning
				Addressing Bias
				Culturally Sustaining Pedagogy
				Positive Discipline
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 12: Reshaping Disproportionality Educational Research to Advance Social Justice
		Social Justice in Education: Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
		Long-Term, Effective, and Sustainable Training
		Cultural Competency and Cultural Responsivity to Meet Student Needs
		Future Educational Research
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 13: Reshaping Educational Policy to Advance Social Justice
		Current Educational Policy Regarding Social Justice
		The Necessity for Change in Policy
			Teacher Preparation
			Representation Matters
			Mentoring Relationships
			Restorative Justice and Student Involvement
			Parents and the Greater Community as Part of the Solution
			Empower Students and Parents with Information
		Looking Toward the Future
		References
	Chapter 14: Designing Educational Interventions to Advance Social Justice
		Embedding an Equity Focus into Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports
		The Center on PBIS Equity Problem-Solving Process
			Step 1: Problem Identification
			Step 2: Problem Analysis
			Step 3: Plan Implementation
			Step 4: Plan Evaluation
		Case Studies of Implementation
			Haley Elementary School
				Steps in the Problem-Solving Model
			Alcorn Elementary School
				Steps in the Problem-Solving Model
			Walter Marshall Elementary School
				Steps in the Problem-Solving Model
			Milton Elementary School
				Steps in the Problem-Solving Model
			Similarities and Differences Across the Schools
				Similarities
				Differences
		Summary and Recommendations
		References
Index