Digital Borders and Real Rights: Effective Remedies for Third-Country Nationals in the Schengen Information System

Contents
......Page 6
Acknowledgments......Page 24
Abbreviations......Page 26
1. The Schengen Information System and Other EU Databases: Tools for Border and Immigration Control......Page 30
2. Problem......Page 31
3.1. Questions......Page 33
3.2. Criteria to Assess Availability of Effective Remedies
......Page 34
5. Definitions and Explanation of Used Terms......Page 36
6. Sources and Interviewees......Page 37
Part I Border Control and Data Surveillance in the EU......Page 40
1. Introduction: Abolition of Internal Border Controls......Page 42
2.1. Between 1957 and 1985: From the Treaty of Rome to the Commission's White Paper......Page 44
2.2. Th e Commission's White Paper on the Completion of the Internal Market......Page 46
3. From 1985 to the Completion of the Single Market: Defining Powers......Page 47
4.1. Other Examples: The Benelux, the Nordic Union, Ireland and the United Kingdom......Page 49
4.2. Between 1985 and 1989: The Schengen Negotiations......Page 50
4.3. The Immigration Ad Hoc Group, Trevi, and the Group of Co-ordinators......Page 52
5.1. The Function of Borders: Emphasis on Internal Security and Immigration Control......Page 54
5.2. Pre-Border Selection: Visa Policy......Page 56
5.3. Draft of an External Frontiers Convention......Page 57
5.4. An Area of Freedom, Security, and Justice......Page 58
5.5. Common Mechanisms for External Border Controls......Page 60
6.1. Negotiations......Page 62
6.2. Content of the CISA......Page 63
6.2.1. Title II: Abolition of Checks at Internal Borders and Movement of Persons......Page 64
6.2.2. Visa Rules......Page 65
6.2.4. Priority of the Community Rules......Page 66
6.3.2. Position of the Nordic Countries......Page 67
6.3.3. Position of UK and Ireland......Page 68
6.3.4. New EU Member States......Page 69
7.1. Title IV TEC: Communitisation of Asylum and Immigration Law......Page 70
7.2. Incorporation of Schengen into EU Law: Marriage of Convenience or Repairing the Democratic Deficit?
......Page 71
8. Schengen: Successful Laboratory for the EU?......Page 73
1.1. Setting an Example: The Benelux Lists
......Page 76
1.2. Discussing the Purpose and Functioning of the SIS......Page 78
1.3. Structure......Page 81
1.4. Final Purpose and Categories of Entries......Page 82
1.5. Problems During the Construction Phase......Page 84
3.1. Nordic Countries......Page 86
3.2. The UK and Ireland......Page 87
4.1. Draft Texts......Page 88
4.2. Article 96 CISA......Page 89
4.3. Definition of 'inadmissible': Discretionary Power of National Governments......Page 91
4.4. EU Citizens and Beneficiaries of EC Law......Page 92
5. Practical Implementation of SIS: Statistical Data on the Number of Records and SIS-Based Hits......Page 94
5.1. Numbers of Persons Entered in SIS......Page 95
5.2. Numbers of Hits Based on Searches Performed of the SIS......Page 97
1. The Road to the Second Generation SIS or SIS II......Page 100
2.1. Access to Europol and Eurojust......Page 102
2.2. Effective Protection against Illegal Immigration......Page 103
2.3. New Categories of Persons......Page 104
3.1. Extending the Functions of the SIS I......Page 105
3.2. Access for Internal Security and Intelligence Services......Page 107
3.3. Inclusion of Persons Listed on the UN Terrorist Lists......Page 108
4.1. Regulation 871/2004 and Decision 2005/211 on New Functionalities......Page 109
4.1.1. Europol and Eurojust......Page 110
4.1.3. Authorities Responsible for Issuing or Examining Visa Applications or for Issuing Residence Permits......Page 111
4.2. Framework Decision 2002/584 on the European Arrest Warrant......Page 112
4.3. Common Position 2005/69 on Exchange of SIS Data Between Member States and Interpol......Page 113
5.1. Legal Basis for SIS II......Page 114
5.2. Developing SIS II as a 'flexible tool'......Page 116
5.3. The Position of the UK and Ireland with Regard to Access to SIS II......Page 117
5.4. Involvement of the European Parliament......Page 119
6.1. Purpose......Page 122
6.2.2. Final Criteria: Th e Individual Assessment and Proportionality Clause......Page 123
6.2.3. SIS II and Terrorist Lists......Page 125
6.3. EU Citizens and Privileged Third-Country Nationals......Page 126
6.4. Inclusion of Biometrics in SIS II as an Identification Tool......Page 127
6.5. Authorities Allowed Access to SIS II......Page 128
6.6. Interlinking of Alerts......Page 130
6.7. Change of Architecture......Page 131
6.9. Evaluation and Publication of Statistics on SIS II......Page 132
7.1. Changing the Purpose of SIS......Page 133
7.2. Changes with Regard to the Storage and Use of Data on Third-Country Nationals......Page 135
1. Introduction......Page 146
2.1. Development and Central Purpose of Eurodac......Page 147
2.2. Collection, Transmission and Comparison of Fingerprints......Page 150
2.3. Extension to Illegal Immigrants......Page 152
2.4. Functioning of Eurodac: Annual Reports of the Commission......Page 154
3.1. Negotiations Towards a European Visa Information System......Page 156
3.2. The VIS Regulation: Purpose and Content of VIS......Page 159
4. Interoperability of SIS II, Eurodac and VIS......Page 161
5.1. Controlling the Body: Use of Biometrics at the EU Level......Page 164
5.2. Different Options with Regard to the Use of Biometric Data......Page 166
5.3. Biometrics and the Rights of Individuals......Page 167
5.4. Reliability of Biometrics......Page 168
5.5. Index on Criminal Records of Third-Country Nationals......Page 169
6.1. Central Databases, Immigrants and Biometrics......Page 170
6.2. Differences Between SIS, Eurodac, and VIS......Page 171
6.3. Intelligence Tool or Administrative File?......Page 172
Part II Eff ective Remedies under European Law......Page 174
1. Introduction......Page 176
2.1. SIS and SIS II......Page 177
2.2. Eurodac......Page 178
2.3. VIS......Page 179
3. Article 8 ECHR and Data Processing: When is there an Interference with the Right to Private Life?......Page 181
3.1. Secret Police and Security Files: Leander and Segerstedt-Wiberg......Page 182
3.2. Child care Records, Health and Gender Information: Gaskin, Z and Goodwin......Page 184
3.3. Systematic Collection and Storage of Personal Information by Public Authorities: Amann and Rotaru......Page 186
3.4. Recording of Voices and Video Images Collected in the Public Domain: P.G. and J.H. v. UK......Page 188
3.6. Use of Information Beyond What is Normally Foreseeable: Perry, Peck and Lupker......Page 189
3.7. Passports and Identification Measures: Smirnova and Iletmis......Page 190
4. Is the Interference in Accordance with the Law? Quality of Law......Page 192
5. Necessary in a Democratic Society: Proportionality and Procedural Guarantees......Page 194
6.1. Independent Control Mechanism: Judicial or Non-Judicial Remedies......Page 196
6.2. Accessibility......Page 197
6.4.1. Article 8 and Article 13 ECHR......Page 198
6.4.2. Article 8 ECHR and the Right to Financial Compensation under Article 6 ECHR......Page 200
7.1. Data Processing and the Right to Private Life......Page 201
7.2. Procedural Guarantees and Effective Remedies......Page 203
1. Introduction......Page 206
2. Development of National Data Protection Law: Different Phases of Law-Making......Page 207
3.1. 1981: Data Protection Convention of the Council of Europe......Page 210
3.2. 1990: Inclusion of Data Protection Provisions in the CISA......Page 212
3.3.1. Protecting Individuals and Free Movement of Data......Page 215
3.3.2. Scope and Applicability of Directive 95/46......Page 217
3.4. Regulation 45/2001/EC: Data Protection Applicable to Community Institutions and Bodies......Page 219
3.5. Data Protection in the Third Pillar: A New Instrument......Page 220
3.6. Article 8 of the EU Charter: Data Protection as a Human Right......Page 222
4. Unveiling Reasons for Data Protection......Page 223
4.1.1. From the Right to be Let Alone to the Right of Personal Liberty......Page 225
4.1.2. Informational Self-determination......Page 227
4.2.1. Balance of Powers......Page 229
4.2.2. Informational Division of Powers......Page 230
4.3. Data Protection as an Obligation for 'good administration'......Page 231
5. Data Protection Principles......Page 233
5.1. The Principle of Purpose Limitation......Page 234
5.1.1. Ban on "aimless data collection"......Page 235
5.1.2. Legitimacy of Purpose......Page 236
5.1.3. Use or Disclosure Limitation......Page 237
5.1.4. Time Limit on Storage of Data......Page 238
5.2. Transparency – Purpose Specification
......Page 240
5.3. Special Categories of Data: Extra Safeguards......Page 241
5.4. Quality of Data......Page 242
5.5.1. Right to be Informed – Right of Access to Personal Data......Page 244
5.5.2. Right to Request Correction, Deletion or Blocking of Further Processing......Page 246
5.6. Ban on Automated Decision-making......Page 247
5.7. Security......Page 248
5.8. Accountability......Page 249
5.9. Non-discriminatory Application of Data Protection Rules......Page 250
6. Limitations of Data Protection Rights: General Interest and National Security......Page 251
7.1.1. Data Protection Convention......Page 252
7.1.2. EC Directive 95/46......Page 253
7.1.3. SIS I and SIS II: CISA and Regulation 1987/2006......Page 254
7.2.1. The European Data Protection Supervisor......Page 255
7.2.2. Working Party on the Protection of Individuals with regard to the Processing of Data......Page 257
7.3.1. Tasks and Powers......Page 258
7.3.2. Activities of the JSA......Page 259
8.1. Data Protection Convention......Page 260
8.2. EC Directive 95/46......Page 261
8.4. SIS I: Article 111 CISA......Page 262
8.5. SIS II Regulation 1987/2006......Page 264
8.7. VIS Proposal......Page 266
8.8. Third Pillar Instruments......Page 267
9.1. The Value of Data Protection......Page 268
9.2.2. Accessibility......Page 270
9.2.4. Competences......Page 271
1. Introduction......Page 274
2.1. Maaouia: (Non-)Applicability of Article 6 in Immigration Law Procedures?......Page 275
2.2. Immigration Law Decisions and the Right to Financial Compensation......Page 277
2.3. (Non-)Registration and the Right to Financial Compensation......Page 278
3. Article 5 (1) (f ) ECHR: Right to Liberty and Security......Page 280
4. Protocol No. 7 to the ECHR: Procedural Safeguards Relating to Expulsion of Aliens......Page 281
5.1. When Does Article 13 Apply?......Page 282
5.2. Admission of Third-Country Nationals
......Page 283
5.3. Expulsion and Expulsion Orders......Page 285
6.1. Judicial or Non-judicial Remedies......Page 287
6.2. Accessibility of Effective Remedies
......Page 288
6.3. Scope of Review......Page 291
6.4. Competences......Page 295
7. Th e Principle of Non-discrimination: Article 14 ECHR......Page 296
8.1. Non-judicial or Judicial Remedy......Page 298
8.3. Scope......Page 299
8.4. Competences......Page 300
8.5. Non-application of Article 6 (1) ECHR to Immigration Law Procedures: Failure or No Loss?......Page 301
1. Introduction......Page 304
2.1. Protecting the Free Movement of EU Citizens and their Family Members......Page 305
2.2. Extending the Scope of Protection: Cetinkaya and Dörr-Ünal......Page 307
2.3.1. Commission v. Austria......Page 308
2.3.2. Commission v. Spain......Page 309
3. Legal Remedies in Immigration and Asylum Law Based on Title IV TEC......Page 310
3.1. Directive 2001/40/EC on Mutual Recognition of Expulsion Decisions......Page 311
3.2. Directive 2001/55/EC on Minimum Standards for Temporary Protection......Page 312
3.3. Directive 2003/9/EC on Minimum Standards for the Reception of Asylum Seekers......Page 313
3.4. Directive 2003/109/EC on Long-Term Resident Third-
Country Nationals......Page 314
3.5. Directive 2003/86/EC on the Right to Family Reunification
......Page 315
3.6. Regulation 343/2003/EC (Dublin II)......Page 316
3.7. Directive 2005/85/EC on Minimum Standards for Asylum Procedures......Page 317
3.8.1. Regulation 562/2006/EC on the Rules Governing the Movement of Persons at Borders (Schengen Borders Code)......Page 318
3.8.2. The Inclusion of a Standard Refusal Form
......Page 319
3.9. Proposal for a Directive on Returning Illegal Staying Third-Country Nationals......Page 320
3.10.2. Draft Community Code on Visas......Page 321
4.1.1. Directive 2004/38......Page 322
4.2.1. Directive 2004/38/EC......Page 323
4.2.2. EC Asylum and Immigration Law......Page 324
4.3.1. Directive 2004/38/EC......Page 325
4.3.2. EC Asylum and Immigration Law......Page 327
4.4.2. EC Asylum and Immigration Law......Page 328
5. Summary: Different Laws, Different Regimes?......Page 329
2. The First Principle: Incorporation of Human Rights in EU Law......Page 332
3.1. The Johnston Principle......Page 335
3.2. Applying the Johnston Principle to EC Immigration Law: The Panayotova Case......Page 336
3.3. Article 47 of the EU Charter......Page 337
3.4. Relationship Between the General Principle and Secondary EC Legislation......Page 339
4.1. Preliminary Proceedings: The Responsibility of National Judges and Legislators......Page 340
4.2. Criteria of National Courts Which Fall within the Meaning of Article 234 TEC......Page 342
5.1. Effective Remedies, Databases and Third-Country 
Nationals......Page 343
5.2.1. Judicial or Non-Judicial Authority?......Page 344
5.2.2. Accessibility......Page 345
5.2.4. Competences......Page 346
Part III Implementation at the National Level......Page 356
1. Introduction......Page 358
2.1. Schengen in General......Page 359
2.2. The NSIS
......Page 362
2.3. SIS I: Comments NGOs, Lawyers and Organisations......Page 363
2.4. SIS II......Page 364
3.1. Applicable Law......Page 365
3.2. National Criteria for Entering Th ird-Country Nationals into the NSIS......Page 366
3.4. Operation of SIRENE......Page 369
3.5.1. Refusal of Entry or Residence Based on Article 96 CISA......Page 370
3.5.2. Expulsion of Third-Country Nationals on the Basis of Article 96 CISA......Page 371
3.6. The Practical Use of the NSIS in France......Page 372
4.2. General Database on Foreigners: AGDREF......Page 373
4.3. Database with Regard to the Issuing of Visas......Page 374
4.4. Fingerprinting Third-Country Nationals......Page 375
4.5. 'ELOI': File on Expelled Persons......Page 377
5.1. Background to French Data Protection Law......Page 378
5.2. Third-Country Nationals and the Right of Data Protection......Page 380
5.5.1. Direct and Indirect Access......Page 381
5.5.2. Application for a Right to Access and Time Limits......Page 383
5.6. Composition, Tasks and Powers of the French Data Protection Authority (CNIL)......Page 384
5.7. Practical Information on the Right to (Indirect) Access to NSIS Information......Page 386
5.8 Right to Legal Remedies......Page 387
6.1. General Background to Immigration Law......Page 388
6.2. Amendments to French Immigration Law and the NSIS......Page 389
6.3. Duty to Motivate Decisions......Page 390
6.4.1. The Position of the Administrative Court in 
Immigration Law......Page 391
6.4.2. Legal Remedies Against a Refusal of Entry......Page 393
6.4.3. Legal Remedies Against the Refusal of a Visa......Page 394
6.4.4. Legal Remedies Against Expulsion......Page 395
7.1. Introduction......Page 396
7.2. Duty to Inform the Data Subject......Page 397
7.3. Assessing the Validity of Foreign SIS Reports......Page 399
7.4. Duty of Authorities to Balance Interests......Page 402
7.5. Powers of the Court......Page 404
7.6.2. Duty to Play an Active Role when Assessing the Validity of a Foreign Alert......Page 405
7.6.3. Power of Foreign Data Protection Authorities......Page 406
8.1. Implementation of Article 96 CISA......Page 407
8.3.1. Judicial and Non-Judicial Remedies......Page 408
8.3.3. Scope of Review......Page 409
8.3.4. Competences......Page 410
1. Introduction......Page 412
2.1. Schengen in General......Page 413
2.2. Th e NSIS and Data Protection......Page 415
2.3. SIS II......Page 418
3.1. Applicable Law......Page 419
3.2.2. Persons to be Expelled, Removed or Deported......Page 420
3.2.3. Unlawful Data Storage Regarding Rejected Asylum Seekers......Page 422
3.2.4. Registration Based on Public Order and Security Grounds......Page 423
3.3. In the Beginning: Storing Old Data in the NSIS......Page 424
3.4. Authorities with Access to NSIS Data......Page 425
3.6.1. Refusal of Entry......Page 426
3.6.3. Article 96 Hits and Visa Applications......Page 427
4.1.2. Content of the AZR......Page 428
4.1.3. Amendments on the Basis of the Prevention of Terrorism Act......Page 430
4.3.1. Before 11 September 2001: Tracking RAF Terrorists......Page 432
4.3.2. After 11 September 2001: Tracking 'Islamic Terrorists'......Page 433
4.3.3. Assessment of Data Profi ling by Lower German Courts......Page 435
4.3.4. The Constitutional Court and Data Profiling –  
Rasterfahndungsurteil......Page 437
4.4. Biometrics and Border Control......Page 438
5.1. Article 19 (4) Constitution......Page 439
5.2. The Klass Case Before the German Constitutional Court......Page 441
5.3. Rule of Law: Th e Principle of Proportionality......Page 442
5.4.1. Difference in Remedies......Page 443
5.4.3. Temporary Injunction......Page 444
6.1. Background and General Principles of German Data Protection Law......Page 445
6.2.2. The Volkszählungsurteil......Page 446
6.2.3. The Duty of Immigration Offi  ces to Keep Complete Files......Page 448
6.2.4. A Constitutional Dilemma: Amtshilfe versus Informationelle Gewaltenteilung......Page 449
6.4.1. Time Limits......Page 451
6.4.2. Duty to Inform the Data Subject......Page 452
6.4.3. Right of Access, Correction and Deletion......Page 453
6.5.2. The Federal Commissioner for Data Protection and Freedom of Information......Page 454
6.5.3. Data Protection Authorities of the Länder......Page 455
6.5.4. Inquiry of the Data Protection Commissioners on Article 96 CISA......Page 456
6.6.1. Competence of the Administrative Court......Page 457
7.1. General Background to German Immigration Law......Page 458
7.2. Duty to Motivate Decisions......Page 459
7.3.3. Legal Remedies Against Expulsion......Page 460
8.1. Record in the NSIS in Conformity with Criteria of Article 96 CISA?......Page 461
8.2. Direct Legal Eff ects of a SIS Alert......Page 463
8.3. Duty to Balance Interests......Page 464
8.5. Access to Remedies After Expulsion?......Page 465
8.6. Article 96 CISA and Freedom of Religion: Th e Moon Case......Page 466
9.2. Germany: Strong Tradition of Collecting and Protecting Data......Page 469
9.3. NSIS and the Right to Eff ective Remedies......Page 470
9.3.2. Scope of Review......Page 471
9.3.3. Competences......Page 472
1. Introduction......Page 474
2.1. 'Schengen' in General......Page 475
2.2. Parliamentary Discussions on SIS......Page 477
2.3. Parliamentary Discussions on the SIS and the Availability of Legal Remedies......Page 478
2.4. Parliamentary Debate on SIS II......Page 480
3.1. Sources of Immigration Law......Page 482
3.2.1. Formal Residence Ban......Page 484
3.2.2. Third-Country Nationals Reported as Unwanted......Page 486
3.3.2. Procedure for Registration in the NSIS......Page 489
3.3.3. Article 96 Hits and Internal and Border Controls......Page 491
3.4. NSIS and Article 96: Facts and Figures......Page 493
3.5. Audit Report By the Court of Auditors......Page 494
3.6. Audit Report of the Dutch Data Protection Authority......Page 496
4.1. General Administration of Immigrants......Page 497
4.2.1. Third-Country Nationals and their Biometrics
......Page 499
4.2.2. Shared Use of Data on Criminals and Asylum Seekers......Page 500
4.2.4. Biometrics and Passports and Identity Cards......Page 502
4.3. Immigration Files, Border Control and the Fight against Terrorism......Page 503
5.1. Background to Dutch Data Protection Law......Page 504
5.2. NSIS and the Applicable Rules on Data Protection......Page 507
5.3. Duty to Inform the Data Subject......Page 508
5.4. Right to Access, Correction or Deletion of the NSIS Data......Page 510
5.5. Role of the Data Protection Authority......Page 511
5.6. Right to Legal Remedies......Page 512
6.1. Application of Principles of Administrative Law......Page 513
6.2. Informed Decision-making at the Borders......Page 514
6.4. Time Limits for Decisions in the Field of Immigration Law......Page 515
6.5.1. Right to Review......Page 516
6.5.3. Right to Higher Appeal......Page 517
7.1. Introduction: Extent and Importance of Dutch Case Law......Page 518
7.2. Legal Status of Article 96 Reports: Possibility of Legal Redress......Page 519
7.3.2. Foreign Administrative Decisions......Page 522
7.3.3. A Foreign Alert: The Moon Case
......Page 525
7.4. Balance of Interests – Proportionality of a SIS Report......Page 528
7.5. Right to Financial Compensation......Page 530
7.6. Preliminary Request to the ECJ......Page 531
7.7.1. Duty of Informed Decision-making......Page 533
7.7.3. Duty of Proportional Decision-making......Page 534
8.1. Implementation of Article 96 CISA......Page 535
8.2. Data Protection and Data Control......Page 536
8.3.2. Transparency – Accessibility of Remedies......Page 537
8.3.3. Scope of Review......Page 538
8.3.4. Competences......Page 539
1. Third-Country Nationals: Their Data and Their Rights......Page 540
2. Third-Country Nationals: Their Data......Page 541
2.1. Questioning the Efficiency and Quality of the Information Network......Page 542
2.2. Identifying, Tracking or Stigmatising Immigrants?......Page 543
3.1. Recovering the Right to Privacy......Page 544
3.3. Rights and Freedoms Guaranteed by EU Law......Page 545
3.4. Data Protection Rights......Page 546
4. The Right to Eff ective Remedies......Page 549
5.1. National Criteria for Storing Third-Country Nationals in 
SIS I......Page 551
5.2. SIS and Data Protection Rights of Individuals......Page 552
5.3.2. Accessibility......Page 554
5.3.4. Competences......Page 555
6.1.1. Lack of Harmonisation......Page 556
6.1.2. Protecting EU Citizens and Beneficiaries of EC 
Law......Page 558
6.2.1. Right of Information......Page 559
6.2.2. Cooperation Between Data Protection Authorities......Page 560
6.3. Right to Remedies......Page 561
6.4. Mutual Enforcement of National Decisions......Page 562
7. Final Remarks......Page 563
Bibliography......Page 566
Jurisprudence......Page 582
Index......Page 592