Diesel Engine Reference Book

Cover\r......Page 1
Title\r......Page 2
Copyright\r......Page 3
Foreword......Page 4
Preface to the Second Edition......Page 6
Preface to the First Edition......Page 7
Contributors......Page 8
Part I. Theory......Page 11
1. The Theory of Compression Ignition Engines......Page 12
1.2 Two-Stroke and Four-Stroke Engines......Page 13
1.2.1 Two-Stroke Engines......Page 14
1.2.3 Evaluation of Power Output of Two-Stroke and Four-Stroke Engines......Page 15
1.2.4 Other Operating Parameters......Page 16
1.3.1 Theoretical Expressions for Air Standard Cycles......Page 17
1.3.2 Further Comments on Air Standard Cycles......Page 21
1.4.1 Gas Properties......Page 22
1.4.2 Combustion......Page 23
1.5.1 Closed Period......Page 25
1.5.2 Open Period......Page 27
1.6.1 Closed Period......Page 29
1.6.2 Open Period (Gas Exchange Process)......Page 30
References......Page 33
2. The Theory of Turbocharging......Page 35
2.1 Introduction......Page 36
2.2.1 Turbochargers for Automotive Diesel Engines......Page 37
2.2.2 Small Industrial and Marine Engine Turbochargers......Page 40
2.2.3 Large Industrial and Marine Engine Turbochargers......Page 41
2.3.1 Compressor and Turbine Efficiency......Page 42
2.3.2 Non-Dimensional Representation of Compressor and Turbine Characteristics......Page 44
2.3.4 Turbine Performance......Page 45
2.4.1 The Energy in the Exhaust System......Page 47
2.4.2 Principles of Constant Pressure Turbocharging......Page 48
2.4.3 Principles of Pulse Turbocharging......Page 51
2.4.4 Principles of Pulse Converter and Other Turbocharging Systems......Page 60
24.3 Engine Descriptions......Page 0
2.5.2 Charge Air Cooling and Engine Performance......Page 64
2.6.1 Introduction......Page 66
2.6.2 Air Flow Characteristics of Engine and Turbocharger......Page 68
2.6.3 Matching for Constant Speed Operation......Page 69
2.6.4 Matching the Marine Engine......Page 70
2.6.5 Matching for Diesel-Electric Traction......Page 71
2.6.7 Matching the Four-Stroke Vehicle Engine......Page 72
2.6.8 Matching the Two-Stroke Vehicle Engine......Page 74
2.7.2 Operation under Changing Ambient Conditions......Page 76
2.8 Closure......Page 77
Nomenclature......Page 78
3. Compound and Other Engine Systems......Page 79
3.2 Gas Generator and Compound Schemes Compared with the Turbocharged Engine......Page 80
3.3.1 Analysis Based on Compression and Expansion Machines with Fixed Polytropic Efficiencies of 85% and 80%, Respectively......Page 81
3.3.2 Analysis Based on Fully Modelled System, Including Compressor, Turbine and Cooler Characteristics......Page 83
3.4.1 The Differential Compound Engine (DCE)......Page 86
3.4.2 The Differentially Supercharged Diesel Engine (DDE)......Page 88
3.5.1 Two-Stage Turbocharging......Page 89
3.5.2 Variable Geometry Turbocharging......Page 90
3.5.3 The Pressure Wave Supercharger......Page 91
References......Page 92
4. Diesel Combustion and Fuels......Page 93
4.1.1 Basic Combustion Theory......Page 94
4.1.2 Ignition Delay......Page 95
4.1.3 Mixing Controlled Combustion......Page 96
4.1.4 Combustion System Design......Page 97
4.1.5 Analysis of Cylinder Pressure Data......Page 99
4.2.1 Hydrocarbon Types......Page 101
4.2.2 Petroleum-Derived Fuels......Page 102
4.2.3 Diesel Fuel Properties......Page 103
4.2.5 Diesel Fuel Specifications......Page 105
4.2.6 Alternative Fuels......Page 106
References......Page 107
5. Thermal Loading......Page 108
5.3 Prediction of Local Heat Flows......Page 109
5.4.1 Stationary Surfaces - Cylinder Head and Liner......Page 111
5.4.2 Moving Components - Pistons......Page 114
5.5.2 Materials......Page 115
5.5.4 Calculation of Thermal Stress......Page 116
5.6.1 To Meet Lubrication Requirements......Page 117
5.7.1 Cylinder Head......Page 118
5.7.4 Injector Cooling......Page 120
5.8 Measurement of Local Temperature Gradients and Heat Fluxes......Page 121
References......Page 122
Part II. Engine Design Practice......Page 124
6. Thermodynamic Mathematical Modelling......Page 125
6.2 Fundamentals and the Energy Equation......Page 126
6.3 Gas Properties......Page 128
6.4 Pipe Flows, Valves, Throttles and Flow Restrictions......Page 130
6.5 Turbomachinery and Charge Air Coolers......Page 133
6.7 Injection and Combustion......Page 138
6.8 Heal Transfer and Friction......Page 140
6.9 Model Results and Engine Performance......Page 143
6.10 Transient Modelling......Page 144
6.11.1 Turbomachinery......Page 145
6.11.3 Indirect Injection and Other Fuelling Methods......Page 146
6.12 Energy Equation, Gas Properties and Combustion Extensions......Page 147
6.13 Gas Dynamics......Page 148
References......Page 150
7. Computational Fluid Dynamics......Page 151
7.2.1 Gas-Phase Modelling......Page 152
7.2.2 Liquid-Phase Modelling......Page 153
7 2.3 Ignition, Combustion and Emissions......Page 156
7.3.1 Modelling the Gas-Exchange Process......Page 158
7.3.2 Combustion and Emissions Model Validation......Page 160
7.3.3 Effect of Multiple Injections......Page 163
7.4 Summary and Conclusions......Page 165
References......Page 166
Nomenclature......Page 168
8. Modern Control in Diesel Engine Management......Page 169
8.1.2 The Structure of a Control System......Page 170
8.1.3 The Shape of the Future - Model-Based Control......Page 171
8.3 What a Control System Does......Page 174
8.3.1 Sensors for Control......Page 176
8.3.2 Actuators for Control......Page 177
8.5 Algorithms for Control......Page 178
8.5.3 Modern Control - an Example......Page 183
8.6.1 Developing Control Systems......Page 184
8.6.3 Specifying Functions......Page 185
References......Page 189
Part III. Engine Sub-Systems......Page 191
9. Inlet and Exhaust Systems......Page 192
9.3 Four-Stroke Engines......Page 193
9.3.1 Valve Timings......Page 194
9.3.2 Valve Areas......Page 195
9.3.3 Determination of Flow Coefficients......Page 196
9.3.6 Swirl Producing Ports......Page 199
9.5.2 Loop Scavenging......Page 203
9.5.3 Uniflow Scavenging......Page 204
9.5.4 Port Areas and Timings......Page 205
9.6 Silencers......Page 206
References......Page 207
10. Design Layout Options......Page 208
10.2.1 Consideration of the Forces Involved......Page 209
10.2.2 Balance of a Single-Cylinder Engine......Page 212
10.2.3 Two-Cylinder Engines......Page 214
10.2.4 Four-Cylinder in-Line Engines......Page 215
10.2.5 Three-Cylinder Engines......Page 216
10.2.7 Vee Engines......Page 217
10.2.8 Two-Stroke Engines......Page 220
10.3.1 Simple Systems......Page 221
10.3.2 The Solution of Multi-Cylinder Crankshaft Systems......Page 225
10.3.3 Vibration Dampers......Page 232
10.3.4 Torsiographs and Torsional Vibration Tests......Page 235
10.4.2 The Design Process......Page 236
10.4.3 General Properties of Materials......Page 237
10.4.4 Behaviour of Materials under Repeated Loads - Fatigue......Page 238
10.4.5 Typical Materials Used in Production......Page 242
References......Page 250
11. Fuel Injection Systems......Page 251
11.2.1 Compression Ignition Combustion Processes......Page 252
11.2.3 Unburned Hydrocarbons......Page 255
11.2.5 Particulate Emissions......Page 256
11.2.6 Traditional Jerk Pump......Page 257
11.2.8 DP Rotary Distributor Pumps......Page 258
11.2.9 Electronically Controlled Rotary Pumps (EPIC)......Page 261
11.2.10 Advanced Rotary Distributor Pumps......Page 262
11.2.11 Control of Rate of Injection with Conventional FIE......Page 263
11.2.13 Common Rail Systems......Page 265
11.2.14 Integrated Fuel Injection Systems......Page 266
11.2.15 Summary......Page 268
11.3.2 Fuel-injection techniques......Page 269
11.3.3 Pump-and-barrel assemblies (pumping elements)......Page 271
11.3.4 Standard PE in-line injection pumps......Page 274
11.3.5 PE in-line injection pumps for alternative fuels......Page 279
11.3.6 In-line control sleeve fuel-injection pumps......Page 280
11.3.7 Electronic Diesel Control (EDC)......Page 281
11.3.8 Bosch—Single-plunger fuel-injection pumps......Page 283
11.3.9 Innovative fuel-injection systems......Page 285
11.3.10 Peripheral equipment for diesel fuel-injection systems......Page 286
11.3.11 Bosch—Distributor injection pumps VE......Page 289
11.4 Diesel fuel injection systems-Caterpillar Inc.......Page 290
11.4.1 Caterpillar\'s Hydraulically-actuated Electronic Unit Injector (HEUI) fuel system......Page 291
References......Page 293
12. Lubrication and Lubricating Oils......Page 295
12.2.1 Mineral Oils......Page 296
12.3.1 Viscosity and Coefficient of Friction......Page 297
12.3.4 Viscosity Classification......Page 298
12.3.5 Low-Temperature Viscosity and Ease of Starting......Page 299
12.5 Oil Deterioration......Page 300
12.6.2 Engine Wear......Page 302
12.8 Engine Tests and Associated Specifications......Page 303
12.9 Laboratory Inspection Tests......Page 310
Acknowledgement......Page 313
Abbreviations......Page 314
13. Bearings and Bearing Metals......Page 315
13.2.2 Interference Fit......Page 316
13.2.4 Free Spread......Page 317
13.2.6 Prediction of Oil Film Thickness......Page 318
13.2.7 Grooving Configuration......Page 319
13.3.1 Abrasion......Page 320
13.3.3 Corrosion......Page 321
13.3.7 Design Faults......Page 322
13.3.9 Environmental Factors......Page 323
13.4 Slow-Speed Engine Crosshead Bearings......Page 324
13.5.2 Scuff Resistance......Page 325
13.5.5 Overlays......Page 326
13.5.6 White Metals......Page 327
13.5.7 Copper-Lead and Lead-Bronze Alloys......Page 328
13.5.8 Aluminium-Tin Alloys......Page 329
References......Page 330
14. Pistons, Rings and Liners......Page 331
14.2.2 Piston Loading......Page 332
14.2.3 Piston Design......Page 333
14.2.4 Piston Types......Page 335
14.2.5 Gudgeon Pins......Page 339
14.2.6 Piston Design Analysis......Page 340
14.3.1 Introduction......Page 341
14.3.2 Ring Design......Page 342
14.3.3 Ring Types......Page 343
14.3.5 Ring Materials......Page 345
14.3.6 Ring Coatings......Page 346
14.3.9 Ring Research......Page 347
14.4.2 Dry Liners......Page 348
14.4.5 Material......Page 349
14.4.6 Bore Polish......Page 350
References......Page 351
15. Auxiliaries......Page 353
15.1.2 Basic Principles......Page 354
15.1.3 Basic Governing Terms......Page 356
15.1.4 Typical Governors......Page 357
15.1.5 Application Requirements and Governor Selection......Page 365
15.1.6 Typical Applications......Page 366
15.2.3 Improving the Unaided Cold Starting Ability......Page 369
15.2.4 Engine Cranking Requirements......Page 370
15.2.5 Methods of Starting......Page 371
15.2.6 Starting Aids......Page 380
15.3.3 Water-Cooled Systems......Page 384
15.3.5 Temperature Control......Page 387
15.3.6 Air-Cooled Systems......Page 388
15.3.7 Heat Transfer......Page 389
15.3.8 Construction and Design......Page 392
15.3.9 Materials......Page 401
15.3.11 Maintenance......Page 402
References......Page 403
16. Aircooled Engines......Page 404
16.1 Introduction......Page 405
16.2.2 Cylinder Unit......Page 407
16.2.3 Heat Exchangers......Page 413
16.2.4 Fan Control......Page 414
16.3.3 Stators......Page 417
16.3.4 Fan Noise and Its Reduction......Page 418
16.3.5 Other Design Considerations......Page 419
16.4.3 Noise Characteristics of Aircooled Engines......Page 420
16.4.4 Noise Attenuation by Secondary Measures......Page 421
16.5 Applications......Page 422
References and Bibliography......Page 426
17. Crankcase Explosions......Page 429
17.3 Explosion Effects......Page 430
17.7 Explosion Relief Valves......Page 431
17.9.1 Graviner Systems......Page 432
17.9.2 Schaller Visatron Systems......Page 433
References......Page 434
Part IV. Environmental Aspects......Page 435
18. Exhaust Smoke, Measurement and Regulation......Page 436
18.2.1 Comparators......Page 437
18.2.3 Opacimeters......Page 438
18.3 Calibration and Correlation of Smokemeters......Page 441
18.5 Opacimeter Specifications......Page 442
18.6 Visibility Criterion - Public Objection......Page 443
18.7 Test Methods and Procedures......Page 444
References......Page 446
19. Exhaust Emissions......Page 447
19.2.1 USA......Page 448
19.3 Analysers......Page 450
19.3.3 Nitric Oxide......Page 451
19.3.5 Oxygen......Page 452
19.4.1 Carbon Dioxide......Page 453
19.4.4 Nitrogen Oxides......Page 454
19.4.6 Particulates......Page 455
19.5.4 Vapour-Phase Hydrocarbons......Page 456
19.6 Conclusions......Page 457
Bibliography......Page 458
20. Engine Noise......Page 460
20.2.3 Frequency and Wavelength......Page 461
20.2.5 Addition and Subtraction of Sound Sources......Page 462
20.2.8 Weighting Curves......Page 463
20.3.2 Off-Highway Machines......Page 464
20.4.2 Equipment......Page 465
20.4.3 Frequency Analysis......Page 466
20.4.4 Tracking Analysis......Page 467
20.5 Noise Characteristics of Diesel Engines......Page 468
20.5.2 Assessment of Combustion Noise......Page 469
20.5.4 Engine Radiated Noise......Page 471
20.5.5 Vehicle and Machine Noise Assessment......Page 473
20.6.1 Combustion Noise......Page 475
20.6.3 Predictive Analysis......Page 476
20.6.4 Palliative Treatments and Enclosures......Page 479
Bibliography......Page 480
21. Larger Engine Noise and Vibration Control......Page 482
21.2 Noise......Page 483
21.3 Vibration......Page 484
References......Page 491
Part V. Applications......Page 492
22. Passenger Car Engines......Page 493
22.1 Introduction......Page 494
22.3.1 Combustion Systems......Page 499
22.3.2 Design Features......Page 504
22.3.3 Fuel Injection Equipment......Page 509
22.3.4 Exhaust Gas Aftertreatment......Page 510
22.4.2 Fuel Consumption......Page 513
22.4.3 Exhaust Emissions......Page 514
22.4.4 Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH)......Page 516
22.5 Future Developments......Page 517
References......Page 520
23. Trucks and Buses......Page 521
23.1.6 Fuel Economy......Page 523
23.2.1 Cylinder Block and Head......Page 524
23.3.1 Pistons......Page 525
23.3.3 Cylinder Liner......Page 526
23.5.1 Crankshaft......Page 527
23.5.4 Crankshaft Pulley......Page 528
23.7 Overhead Components......Page 529
23.7.1 Valve Train Assembly......Page 530
23.7.4 Engine Retarders......Page 531
23.8 Flywheel......Page 532
23.10 Geartrain......Page 533
23.12.1 ECM......Page 534
23.12.2 Sensors......Page 536
23.12.4 Communications......Page 537
23.14 Air System......Page 540
23.14.1 Turbocharger......Page 541
23.14.2 Charge Cooler......Page 543
23.15.1 Oil Pump......Page 544
23.15.8 Crankcase Ventilation......Page 545
23.16.3 Water Pump......Page 546
23.17.2 Caterpillar Engines......Page 547
23.17.3 Cummins Engines......Page 548
23.17.6 Mercedes-Benz Engines......Page 549
23.17.9 Volvo Engines......Page 550
Bibliography......Page 553
24. Locomotives......Page 554
24.2.1 Emissions......Page 555
24.2.3 Reliability and Durability......Page 558
24 3.4 General Electric 7FDL™......Page 563
24.3.7 General Motors EMD H Engine......Page 564
24.3.8 Kolomna D 49......Page 567
24.3.10 Paxman VP 185......Page 569
24.3.11 Pielstick PA4 200 VG......Page 571
24.3.12 Pielstick PA6B......Page 573
24.5 Railcar Engines......Page 575
References......Page 577
Further Reading......Page 578
25. Dual Fuel Engines......Page 579
25.3.3 Anti-Detonation Properties......Page 580
25.3.5 Flame Speed......Page 581
25.4 Combustion System......Page 582
25.4.2 The \'Low NOx\' Dual Fuel Engine......Page 584
25.4.3 The \'Gas Diesel\' Engine......Page 586
25.4.4 Other Combustion Systems......Page 587
25.6 Safety Systems......Page 591
25.7.1 Automotive......Page 593
References......Page 594
Bibliography......Page 595
26. Marine Engine Applications......Page 596
26.1.1 Caterpillar......Page 597
26.1.3 Deutz MWM......Page 598
26.1.4 GMT......Page 599
26.1.6 MAN B&W Holeby......Page 601
26.1.8 MTU......Page 604
26.1.9 MTU/DDC Designs......Page 608
26.1.12 SEMT-Pielstick......Page 615
26.1.13 Wartsila Diesel......Page 616
26.2.1 Introduction......Page 619
26.2.2 Intelligent Engines......Page 622
Part VI. Operation......Page 626
27. Condition Monitoring......Page 627
27.3 Instrumentation for Condition Monitoring......Page 628
27.3.2 Temperature Measurements......Page 629
27.4 Instrumentation for Condition Monitoring Indirect Methods......Page 630
References......Page 631
List of Units and Conversion Tables......Page 632
Index......Page 634