Diagnostic ultrasound: physics and equipment

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface to the third edition
Preface to the second edition
Preface to the first edition
Contributors
1. Introduction to B-mode imaging
	Introduction
	Basic principles of ultrasound image formation
	B-mode formats
	Acknowledgement
	References
2. Physics
	Introduction
	Waves
	Frequency, speed and wavelength
	Pressure, intensity and power
	Speed of sound
	Frequencies and wavelengths used in diagnosis
	Reflection of ultrasound waves
	Scattering
	Diffuse reflection
	Refraction
	Attenuation
	Ultrasound beams
	Focusing
	Ultrasound pulse
	Pulse spectrum
	Non-linear propagation
	Harmonic imaging
	Questions
	References
3. Transducers and beam forming
	Introduction
	Which beam do you mean?
	Common features of all transducers and transducer elements
	Developments in transducer technology
	Linear-array and curvilinear-array transducers (beam-stepping arrays)
	Phased-array transducers (beam-steering arrays)
	Hybrid beam-stepping/beam-steering transducers
	Time-saving techniques for array transducers
	Recent developments in beam forming for array probes
	Mixed-mode scanning
	3D/4D Transducers
	Mechanically scanned transducers
	Endo-cavity transducers
	Questions
	References
4. B-mode instrumentation
	Signal amplitude processing
	Transmit beam former
	Amplification
	Time-gain compensation
	Analogue-to-digital conversion
	Coherent and non-coherent image formation
	Coded excitation
	Tissue harmonic imaging
	Frequency compounding
	Non-coherent image formation
	Image formation and storage
	Image update modes
	Post-processing
	Display, output, storage and networking
	Acknowledgement
	Questions
	References
5. Properties, limitations and artefacts of B-mode images
	Introduction
	Imaging system performance limitations
	Artefacts
	Acknowledgement
	Questions
	References
6. B-mode measurements
	Introduction
	Measurement systems
	Measurement errors
	Sources of errors in ultrasound systems
	Interpretation of measurements
	Summary
	Questions
	References
7. Principles of Doppler ultrasound
	Introduction
	Doppler ultrasound systems
	Ultrasound signal received by the transducer
	Continuous-wave Doppler signal processor
	Origin and processing of the Doppler signal for PW systems
	Time-domain systems
	Other features
	Questions
	References
8. Blood flow
	Introduction
	Structure of the vessel walls
	Laminar, disturbed and turbulent flow
	Velocity profiles
	Velocity changes within stenosis
	Resistance to flow
	Physiological and pathological changes that affect the arterial flow
	Venous flow
	Questions
	Further reading
	References
9. Spectral Doppler ultrasound
	Spectral display
	Doppler ultrasound systems
	Spectral analysis
	Spectral Doppler controls and how they should be optimized
	Factors that affect the spectral Doppler display
	Effect of pathology on the spectral Doppler display
	Artefacts
	Measurements and their potential sources of errors
	Questions
	References
10. Colour flow
	Introduction
	Colour flow system components
	Colour flow modes
	Colour controls
	Features of colour flow
	Artefacts
	Measurements
	Time-domain systems
	Questions
	References
11. Advanced techniques for imaging flow and tissue motion
	Introduction
	B-flow
	Vector flow imaging
	High frame rate Doppler
	Small vessel imaging
	Doppler tissue imaging
	Wall motion measurement
	Questions
	References
12. Three-dimensional ultrasound
	Introduction
	3D/4D ultrasound systems
	Visualisation
	Applications
	Measurements
	Questions
	References
13. Contrast agents
	Introduction
	Contrast microbubbles
	Interaction of microbubbles and ultrasound
	Contrast-specific imaging techniques
	Performing a contrast scan
	Clinical applications of contrast agents
	Molecularly targeted contrast agents
	Safety of contrast agents
	Artefacts in contrast imaging
	Summary
	Acknowledgement
	Questions
	References
14. Elastography
	Introduction
	Elasticity
	Strain elastography using an externally applied force
	Strain elastography using acoustic radiation force
	Estimation of elastic modulus using strain elastography
	Elastic moduli and wave generation
	Shear-wave elastography
	Further developments
	Questions
	References
15. Quality assurance
	Introduction
	Routine quality assurance
	Further testing
	Quality assurance programme
	Test objects
	Modern scanning modes
	Recent developments
	Questions
	References
16. Safety of diagnostic ultrasound
	Introduction: Risk and hazard
	What does ultrasound exposure mean?
	What happens to tissue exposed to ultrasound: And does it matter?
	How is safety managed?
	Safety for specific uses of diagnostic ultrasound
	Summary and conclusions
	Questions
	Acknowledgement
	Standards and regulations
	References
Appendix A: The decibel
Appendix B: Acoustic output parameters and their measurement
Glossary
Answers
Index