Diagnostic Ultrasound Imaging: Inside Out (Biomedical Engineering)

CONTENTS......Page 14
1.1 Introduction......Page 24
1.1.1 Early Beginnings......Page 25
1.1.2 Sonar......Page 26
1.2 Echo Ranging of the Body......Page 27
1.3 Ultrasound Portrait Photographers......Page 29
1.4 Ultrasound Cinematographers......Page 35
1.5 Modern Ultrasound Imaging Developments......Page 39
1.6 Enabling Technologies for Ultrasound Imaging......Page 42
1.7 Ultrasound Imaging Safety......Page 43
1.8.2 Ultrasound......Page 45
1.8.4 Computed Tomography Imaging......Page 47
1.8.5 Magnetic Resonance Imaging......Page 48
Bibliography......Page 49
References......Page 50
2.1 Introduction......Page 52
2.2.1 Introduction to the Fourier Transform......Page 53
2.2.2 Fourier Transform Relationships......Page 54
2.3.1 Time and Frequency Building Blocks......Page 57
2.3.2 Space Wave Number Building Block......Page 59
2.4 Central Diagram......Page 66
References......Page 68
3.1 Introduction to Waves......Page 70
3.2.1 Introduction......Page 71
3.2.2 Wave Equations for Fluids......Page 72
3.2.3 One-Dimensional Wave Hitting a Boundary......Page 75
3.2.4 ABCD Matrices......Page 76
3.2.5 Oblique Waves at a Liquid–Liquid Boundary......Page 80
3.3.1 Types of Waves......Page 82
3.3.2 Equivalent Networks for Waves......Page 87
3.3.3 Waves at a Fluid–Solid Boundary......Page 89
References......Page 93
4 ATTENUATION......Page 94
4.1.1 Losses in Exponential Terms and in Decibels......Page 95
4.1.2 Tissue Data......Page 96
4.2.1 The Material Transfer Function......Page 98
4.2.2 The Material Impulse Response Function......Page 99
4.3.1 Introduction......Page 100
4.3.2 Thermoviscous Model......Page 101
4.3.4 The Time Causal Model......Page 102
4.4.1 Scaling of the Material Impulse Response Function......Page 106
4.4.2 Pulse Propagation: Interactive Effects in Time and Frequency......Page 109
4.4.3 Pulse Echo Propagation......Page 111
4.6 Hooke\'s Law for Viscoelastic Media......Page 113
4.7.1 Voigt Model Wave Equation......Page 115
4.7.3 Time Causal Model Wave Equations......Page 116
References......Page 118
5 TRANSDUCERS......Page 120
5.1.1 Transducer Basics......Page 121
5.1.2 Transducer Electrical Impedance......Page 122
5.1.3 Summary......Page 124
5.2.1 Resonant Crystal Geometries......Page 125
5.2.2 Determination of Electroacoustic Coupling Constants......Page 127
5.2.3 Array Construction......Page 128
5.3.1 KLM Equivalent Circuit Model......Page 129
5.3.2 Organization of Overall Transducer Model......Page 131
5.3.3 Transducer at Resonance......Page 132
5.4.2 Insertion Loss and Transducer Loss......Page 134
5.4.3 Electrical Loss......Page 136
5.4.4 Acoustical Loss......Page 137
5.4.5 Matching Layers......Page 139
5.4.6 Design Examples......Page 140
5.5 Transducer Pulses......Page 143
5.6 Equations for Piezoelectric Media......Page 145
5.7.1 Introduction......Page 146
5.7.3 Relaxor Piezoelectric Ceramics......Page 147
5.7.7 Composite Materials......Page 149
5.8 Comparison of Piezoelectric Materials......Page 150
5.9 Transducer Advanced Topics......Page 151
Bibliography......Page 154
References......Page 155
6.1 What is Diffraction?......Page 160
6.2 Fresnel Approximation of Spatial Diffraction Integral......Page 163
6.3 Rectangular Aperture......Page 165
6.4 Apodization......Page 171
6.5.1 Near and Far Fields for Circular Apertures......Page 172
6.5.2 Universal Relations for Circular Apertures......Page 176
6.6.1 Derivation of Focusing Relations......Page 177
6.6.2 Zones for Focusing Transducers......Page 181
6.7 Angular Spectrum of Waves......Page 186
6.8 Diffraction Loss......Page 187
References......Page 191
7 ARRAY BEAMFORMING......Page 194
7.2 Diffraction in the Time Domain......Page 195
7.3 Circular Radiators in the Time Domain......Page 196
7.4 Arrays......Page 200
7.4.1 The Array Element......Page 201
7.4.2 Pulsed Excitation of an Element......Page 204
7.4.3 Array Sampling and Grating Lobes......Page 205
7.4.4 Element Factors......Page 208
7.4.5 Beam Steering......Page 209
7.4.6 Focusing and Steering......Page 211
7.5.1 Introduction......Page 213
7.5.2 Beam-Shaping......Page 215
7.5.3 Pulse-Echo Focusing......Page 217
7.6 Two-Dimensional Arrays......Page 219
7.7 Baffled......Page 222
7.9.1 Quantization and Defective Elements......Page 226
7.9.2 Sparse and Thinned Arrays......Page 227
7.9.3 1.5-Dimensional Arrays......Page 229
7.9.4 Diffraction in Absorbing Media......Page 230
Bibliography......Page 231
References......Page 232
8.1 Introduction......Page 236
8.2.1 Specular Scattering......Page 239
8.2.2 Diffusive Scattering......Page 240
8.2.3 Diffractive Scattering......Page 242
8.2.4 Scattering Summary......Page 244
8.3 Role of Transducer Diffraction and Focusing......Page 245
8.3.1 Time Domain Born Approximation Including Diffraction......Page 246
8.4.1 Imaging Process......Page 248
8.4.2 A Different Attitude......Page 250
8.4.3 Speckle......Page 253
8.4.4 Contrast......Page 257
8.4.5 van Cittert-Zernike Theorem......Page 259
Bibliography......Page 263
References......Page 264
9 SCATTERING FROM TISSUE AND TISSUE CHARACTERIZATION......Page 278
9.2 Scattering from Tissues......Page 279
9.3.1 Properties of Heterogeneous Tissue......Page 283
9.3.2 Propagation in Heterogeneous Tissue......Page 285
9.4 Array Processing of Scattered Pulse-Echo Signals......Page 289
9.5.1 Introduction......Page 292
9.5.2 Fundamentals......Page 293
9.5.3 Backscattering Definitions......Page 294
9.5.4 The Classic Formulation......Page 295
9.5.5 Extensions of the Original Backscatter Methodology......Page 296
9.5.6 Integrated Backscatter......Page 297
9.5.7 Spectral Features......Page 298
9.6.1 Radiology and Ophthalmic Applications......Page 299
9.6.2 Cardiac Applications......Page 301
9.6.3 High-Frequency Applications......Page 304
9.7 Elastography......Page 312
9.8 Aberration Correction......Page 318
9.9 Wave Equations for Tissue......Page 321
References......Page 323
10 IMAGING SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS......Page 332
10.1 Introduction......Page 333
10.2 Trends in Imaging Systems......Page 334
10.3 Major Controls......Page 335
10.4 Block Diagram......Page 336
10.5 Major Modes......Page 338
10.6 Clinical Applications......Page 341
10.7.1 Image Formats and Transducer Types......Page 342
10.7.2 Transducer Implementations......Page 345
10.8.1 Transmitters......Page 348
10.8.2 Receivers......Page 349
10.9.2 Signal Processors......Page 351
10.10.1 Scan Conversion and Display......Page 357
10.10.2 Computation and Software......Page 358
10.11.2 Attenuation and Diffraction Amplitude Compensation......Page 360
10.11.3 Frequency Compounding......Page 361
10.11.4 Spatial Compounding......Page 362
10.11.5 Real-Time Border Detection......Page 364
10.11.6 Three- and Four-Dimensional Imaging......Page 365
10.12 Alternate Imaging System Architectures......Page 367
References......Page 369
11 DOPPLER MODES......Page 372
11.2 The Doppler Effect......Page 373
11.3 Scattering from Flowing Blood in Vessels......Page 377
11.4 Continuous Wave Doppler......Page 381
11.5.1 Introduction......Page 388
11.5.2 Range-Gated Pulsed Doppler Processing......Page 390
11.5.3 Quadrature Sampling......Page 394
11.5.4 Final Filtering and Display......Page 397
11.5.5 Pulsed Doppler Examples......Page 398
11.6 Comparison of Pulsed and Continuous Wave Doppler......Page 400
11.7.2 Phase-Based Mean Frequency Estimators......Page 401
11.7.3 Time Domain–Based Estimators......Page 404
11.7.4 Implementations of Color Flow Imaging......Page 405
11.7.5 Power Doppler and Other Variants of Color Flow Imaging......Page 406
11.7.6 Future and Current Developments......Page 408
11.8 Non-Doppler Visualization of Blood Flow......Page 409
11.9 Conclusion......Page 411
References......Page 412
12 NONLINEAR ACOUSTICS AND IMAGING......Page 416
12.1 Introduction......Page 417
12.2 What is Nonlinear Propagation?......Page 421
12.3 Propagation in a Nonlinear Medium with Losses......Page 425
12.4 Propagation of Beams in Nonlinear Media......Page 427
12.5.1 Introduction......Page 435
12.5.2 Resolution......Page 437
12.5.3 Focusing......Page 439
12.5.4 Natural Apodization......Page 440
12.5.5 Body Wall Effects......Page 441
12.5.6 Absorption Effects......Page 445
12.5.7 Harmonic Pulse Echo......Page 446
12.6 Harmonic Signal Processing......Page 447
12.7 Other Nonlinear Effects......Page 450
12.8 Nonlinear Wave Equations and Simulation Models......Page 453
Bibliography......Page 456
References......Page 457
13 ULTRASONIC EXPOSIMETRY AND ACOUSTIC MEASUREMENTS......Page 464
13.2.1 Transducer Materials......Page 465
13.2.2 Tissue Measurements......Page 466
13.3.1 Impedance......Page 467
13.3.2 Pulse-Echo Testing......Page 468
13.3.3 Beamplots......Page 470
13.4.1 Introduction......Page 473
13.4.2 Hydrophone Characteristics......Page 474
13.4.3 Hydrophone Measurements of Absolute Pressure and Derived Parameters......Page 478
13.4.5 Measurements of Temperature Rise......Page 482
13.5 Performance Measurements......Page 484
Bibliography......Page 485
References......Page 486
14.1 Introduction......Page 490
14.2 Microbubble as Linear Resonator......Page 491
14.3 Microbubble as Nonlinear Resonator......Page 493
14.4.1 Rectified Diffusion......Page 494
14.4.2 Cavitation......Page 496
14.4.3 Mechanical Index......Page 497
14.5.1 Basic Physical Characteristics of Ultrasound Contrast Agents......Page 498
14.5.2 Acoustic Excitation of Ultrasound Contrast Agents......Page 500
14.5.3 Mechanisms of Destruction of Ultrasound Contrast Agents......Page 502
14.5.4 Secondary Physical Characteristics of Ultrasound Contrast Agents......Page 506
14.6 Imaging with Ultrasound Contrast Agents......Page 508
14.7 Therapeutic Ultrasound Contrast Agents: Smart Bubbles......Page 514
14.8 Equations of Motion for Contrast Agents......Page 517
14.9 Conclusion......Page 518
Bibliography......Page 519
References......Page 520
15 ULTRASOUND-INDUCED BIOEFFECTS......Page 524
15.1 Introduction......Page 525
15.2 Ultrasound-Induced Bioeffects: Observation to Regulation......Page 526
15.3.1 Introduction......Page 528
15.3.2 Heat Conduction Effects......Page 529
15.3.3 Absorption Effects......Page 530
15.3.4 Perfusion Effects......Page 531
15.3.6 Biologically Sensitive Sites......Page 532
15.5.1 Origins of the Output Display Standard......Page 533
15.5.2 Thermal Indices......Page 534
15.5.3 Mechanical Index......Page 535
15.5.4 The ODS Revisited......Page 536
15.6.2 Ultrasound Therapy......Page 537
15.6.3 Hyperthermia......Page 538
15.6.4 High-Intensity Focused Ultrasound......Page 539
15.6.6 Diagnostic Ultrasound Imaging......Page 540
15.7 Primary and Secondary Ultrasound-Induced Bioeffects......Page 542
15.8 Equations for Predicting Temperature Rise......Page 543
15.9 Conclusions......Page 545
References......Page 547
A.1 Introduction......Page 552
A.2.1 Definitions......Page 553
A.2.2 Fourier Transform Pairs......Page 554
A.2.3 Fundamental Fourier Transform Operations......Page 556
A.2.4 The Sampled Waveform......Page 558
A.2.5 The Digital Fourier Transform......Page 561
A.2.6 Calculating a Fourier Transform with an FFT......Page 562
A.2.7 Calculating an Inverse Fourier Transform and a Hilbert Transform with an FFT......Page 567
A.2.8 Calculating a Two-Dimensional Fourier Transform with FFTs......Page 568
References......Page 569
References......Page 570
C.1 Development of One-Dimensional KLM Model Based on ABCD Matrices......Page 572
References......Page 575
APPENDIX D......Page 576
A......Page 578
E......Page 579
I......Page 580
M......Page 581
S......Page 582
U......Page 583
Y......Page 584