Detecting Environmental Radioactivity

Preface
Contents
1 Radioactivity: History and Phenomenology
	1.1 Basic Description of the Atomic Nucleus. Nuclear Stability
		1.1.1 Simple Nuclear Models
		1.1.2 Atomic and Mass Numbers. Isobars, Isotopes, and Isotone Nuclei
		1.1.3 Unstable Nuclides
	1.2 Discovery of Radioactivity
		1.2.1 Some Historic Data
		1.2.2 Phenomenology of Radioactivity
	1.3 Types of Radioactivity
		1.3.1 Alpha Radioactivity
		1.3.2 Beta Radioactivity: Electrons, Positrons, and Electron Capture
		1.3.3 Gamma Radioactivity: Electromagnetic Radiation, Conversion Electrons, and Isomers
		1.3.4 Other Radioactivity Types: Double Beta Decay, Proton and Neutron Emissions, Exotic Radioactivity, Fission
	1.4 X-rays. Auger Electrons
	References
2 Radioactivity: Decay Law, Definitions, and Units
	2.1 Exponential Decay Law. Decay Constant, Half-Life and Mean-Life
	2.2 Radioactive Activity and Units
		2.2.1 Exponential Law of Activity
		2.2.2 Becquerels and Curies
	2.3 Radioactive Series
		2.3.1 Bateman Equations
		2.3.2 Transient and Secular Equilibria
	2.4 Partial Activities. Branching Ratio and Intensity of Radiation
	2.5 Decay Schemes
	References
3 Natural and Artificial Radioactivity
	3.1 Primordial Radionuclides
		3.1.1 Long-Lived Radionuclides
		3.1.2 Natural Radioactive Series
	3.2 Cosmogenic Radionuclides
		3.2.1 Cosmic Radiation
		3.2.2 Production of Radionuclides by Cosmic Radiation
	3.3 Artificial Radionuclides
		3.3.1 Some Historic Data
		3.3.2 Production of Radionuclides in Accelerators
		3.3.3 Production of Radionuclides in Nuclear Reactors
	References
4 Environmental Radioactivity
	4.1 Presence of Natural Radioactivity in the Environment
		4.1.1 Primordial Radionuclides
		4.1.2 Cosmogenic Radionuclides
		4.1.3 NORM Materials and Non-nuclear Industries
	4.2 Sources of Artificial Radionuclides
		4.2.1 The Start of the Nuclear Era. The Bomb Pulse
		4.2.2 Radioactive Fallout
		4.2.3 Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing Plants
		4.2.4 Other Nuclear Facilities and Activities: Nuclear Power Plants
		4.2.5 Nuclear Accidents
	References
5 Levels and Behavior of Environmental Radioactivity
	5.1 Dynamics of Radioactivity in the Environment
		5.1.1 General Concepts of Radioecology
		5.1.2 Radionuclide Speciation in the Environment
		5.1.3 Exchange and Transport Processes. Transfer Parameters
		5.1.4 Mathematical Modeling
	5.2 Levels and Behavior of Radioactivity in the Atmosphere
		5.2.1 Radioactivity in the Air
		5.2.2 The Radon Problem
	5.3 Levels and Behavior of Radioactivity in the Lithosphere. Radioactive Particles
		5.3.1 Soils
		5.3.2 Radioactive Particles
	5.4 Levels and Behavior of Radioactivity in Fresh Waters
		5.4.1 Rivers and Sediments
		5.4.2 Lakes and Sediments
		5.4.3 Groundwater
	5.5 Levels and Behavior of Radioactivity in Oceans
		5.5.1 Global Circulation
		5.5.2 Seawater
		5.5.3 Marine Sediments
	5.6 Levels and Behavior of Radioactivity in the Biosphere
		5.6.1 Plants, Animals
		5.6.2 Seaweed and Other Marine Bioindicators
	5.7 Levels and Behavior of Radioactivity in Foods
		5.7.1 Drinking Water
		5.7.2 Foodstuffs and Food Raw Materials
	References
6 Radiological Impact. Radiation Dosimetry
	6.1 Radiation Dosimetry
		6.1.1 Radiation Exposure, Absorbed Dose and Dose Equivalent: Magnitudes and Units
		6.1.2 Effective and Committed Doses and Other Magnitudes
	6.2 Biological Effects of Radioactivity
		6.2.1 Stochastic and Deterministic Effects
		6.2.2 Radiation Effects on Human Health
	6.3 Radiological Impact
		6.3.1 Radiation Protection Programs
		6.3.2 Radiation Protection Regulations
	References
7 Principles of Radiation Detection: Interaction of Radiation with Matter
	7.1 Interaction of Gamma Radiation with Matter
		7.1.1 Photoelectric Effect
		7.1.2 Compton Effect
		7.1.3 Pair Production
		7.1.4 Attenuation and Absorption Coefficients
		7.1.5 Designing Gamma Radiation Detectors
	7.2 Interaction of Charged Particles with Matter
		7.2.1 Ionization and Excitation
		7.2.2 Stopping Power. The Bethe-Bloch Equation
		7.2.3 Bremsstrahlung
		7.2.4 Cherenkov Radiation
		7.2.5 Range, Specific Ionization, and Bragg Curves
		7.2.6 Designing Charged-Particle Detectors
	7.3 Nuclear Reactions. Interaction of Neutrons with Matter
		7.3.1 Nuclear Reactions with Neutrons
		7.3.2 Path of Neutrons Through Matter
		7.3.3 Designing Neutron Detectors
	References
8 Principles of Radiation Detection: Counting and Spectrometry
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Counting Efficiency
		8.2.1 Absolute Efficiency
		8.2.2 Partial Efficiencies. Photopeak Efficiency
	8.3 Background of Detectors
		8.3.1 Sources and Components
		8.3.2 Background Corrections
	8.4 Dead Time
		8.4.1 Sources of Dead Time
		8.4.2 Dead-Time Corrections
	8.5 Energy Spectra
		8.5.1 Components
		8.5.2 Energy Resolution
	References
9 Gas Ionization Detectors
	9.1 Physics of Gas Ionization Detectors
		9.1.1 Ionization in Gases
		9.1.2 Charge Transfer Reactions in Gases
		9.1.3 Multiplication of Charge in Gases. Townsend Avalanche
	9.2 Ionization Chamber
	9.3 Proportional Counters
	9.4 Geiger–Müller Counters
	9.5 Radiation Counting and Spectrometry with Gas Ionization Detectors
	9.6 Background in Gas Ionization Detectors
	References
10 Scintillation Detectors
	10.1 Physics of Scintillation Detectors
		10.1.1 Organic Scintillators
		10.1.2 Inorganic Scintillators
		10.1.3 Gas Scintillators
		10.1.4 Photomultipliers
	10.2 Counting and Spectrometry with Scintillation Detectors
	10.3 Gamma-Ray Spectrometry with Scintillation Detectors
		10.3.1 Pulse Height Spectrum
		10.3.2 Identification of Radionuclides and Activity Calculation
	10.4 Counting and Spectrometry with Liquid Scintillation Detectors
		10.4.1 Technical Aspects
		10.4.2 Applications
	10.5 Background in Scintillation Detectors
	References
11 Semiconductor Detectors
	11.1 Physics of Semiconductor Detectors
		11.1.1 Electron-hole Production
		11.1.2 Energy Resolution
		11.1.3 Types of Semiconductor Detectors
	11.2 Gamma-Ray Spectrometry with Semiconductor Detectors
		11.2.1 Pulse Height Spectrum
		11.2.2 Identification of Radionuclides and Activity Calculation
	11.3 Alpha- and Beta-Spectrometry with Semiconductor Detectors
		11.3.1 Pulse Height Spectrum
		11.3.2 Activity Determination
	11.4 X-ray Spectrometry with Semiconductor Detectors
		11.4.1 Pulse Height Spectrum
		11.4.2 Activity Determination
	11.5 Background in Semiconductor Detectors
	References
12 Dosimeters, Other Detectors, and Specific Designs
	12.1 Dosimeters
		12.1.1 Active Dosimeters
		12.1.2 Passive Dosimeters
	12.2 Track Detectors
	12.3 ΔE–E Telescopes
	12.4 Time-Of-Flight Spectrometers
	12.5 Cherenkov Detectors
		12.5.1 Cherenkov Threshold Counters
		12.5.2 Cherenkov Differential Detectors
		12.5.3 Cherenkov Circular Image Detectors
	References
13 Radiochemistry for Environmental Samples
	13.1 Sampling Techniques
		13.1.1 Solid Samples
		13.1.2 Liquid Samples
		13.1.3 Atmospheric Samples
		13.1.4 Biological Samples
	13.2 Sample Transport and Storage
	13.3 Chemical Procedures
		13.3.1 Preconcentration Processes
		13.3.2 Separation and Purification Procedures
		13.3.3 Source Preparation for Counting and Spectrometry
	13.4 Yield Determination
	13.5 Efficiency Calibration of Radiation Counters and Spectrometers
		13.5.1 Calibration Curves for Charged Particles
		13.5.2 Calibration Curves for Gamma Radiation
	13.6 Speciation Studies
	13.7 Quality Assurance
	References
14 Principles of Low-Level Counting and Spectrometry
	14.1 Need of Low-Level Counting Techniques (LLC)
		14.1.1 Levels of Radioactivity in the Environment
		14.1.2 Problems Requiring LLC
	14.2 Counting Statistics
		14.2.1 The Random Nature of Radioactivity
		14.2.2 Uncertainty Calculations in Radioactivity Measurements
	14.3 Figure of Merit (FOM)
		14.3.1 Definition and FOM Equation
		14.3.2 Analysis of the FOM Equation
	14.4 Generalized Figure of Merit
		14.4.1 Definition and Equation
		14.4.2 Analysis of the Equation
	14.5 Designing an LLC Experiment
		14.5.1 Sampling Strategy
		14.5.2 Counting or Spectrometry, or Both
	14.6 Limit of Detection and Minimum Detectable Activity
	References
15 Low-Level Counting and Spectrometry Techniques
	15.1 Techniques for Detector Background Suppression
		15.1.1 Passive Shielding
		15.1.2 Active Shielding
		15.1.3 Underground Laboratories
	15.2 Techniques for Increasing Counting Efficiency
		15.2.1 External Counting and Spectrometry
		15.2.2 Internal Counting and Spectrometry
		15.2.3 Radiation Coincidence Techniques
	References
16 Principles of Mass Spectrometry
	16.1 Limitations of Radiometric Methods. Need for Mass Spectrometry Techniques
		16.1.1 Loss of Information by Counting Emitted Radiation
		16.1.2 Counting Atoms Instead of Emitted Radiation
	16.2 Basics of Mass Spectrometry
		16.2.1 Electrostatic and Magnetic Rigidity
		16.2.2 The Mass-Energy Plane
		16.2.3 The Dynamic Approach
	16.3 Low-Energy Mass Spectrometers: TIMS, SIMS, GDMS, RIMS, ICP‒MS
	16.4 Applications to Environmental Radioactivity
	References
17 Principles of Particle Accelerators
	17.1 Need of Accelerators
	17.2 Parts of an Accelerator
		17.2.1 The Ion Source
		17.2.2 The Acceleration Step
		17.2.3 The Reaction Chamber
		17.2.4 Ion Optics and Other Elements
	17.3 Electrostatic Accelerators
		17.3.1 Van de Graaff Accelerators
		17.3.2 Cockcroft–Walton Accelerators
	17.4 Linear Accelerators (LINACS)
	17.5 Circular Accelerators
		17.5.1 Cyclotrons
		17.5.2 Synchrotrons
	17.6 Applications of Accelerators to Environmental Problems
	References
18 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS)
	18.1 Experimental Challenges in the Determination of Radioactivity in the Environment
	18.2 Limitations of Low-Energy Mass Spectrometry
		18.2.1 Isobar and Molecular Background
		18.2.2 Mass-To-Charge Ratio Background
	18.3 History of AMS
		18.3.1 Early Measurements. The 14C Dating Problem
	18.4 Principles and Contributions of AMS
		18.4.1 Typical AMS Systems
		18.4.2 The Ion Source and Low-Energy Side. Advantages of Accelerating Negative Ions
		18.4.3 The Tandem. Charge Stripping and Tandem Beams. Molecular Background Suppression
		18.4.4 High-Energy Side and Ion Detectors. Isobar Rejection
		18.4.5 Measurements in AMS
	18.5 Low-Energy AMS (LEAMS)
		18.5.1 The Use of Low-Terminal Voltages
		18.5.2 Charge Stripping at Low-Terminal Voltages
		18.5.3 Some Examples of LEAMS Systems
	18.6 AMS Applications to Environmental Radioactivity
		18.6.1 AMS Sample Preparation
		18.6.2 AMS in Environmental Radioactivity
	References
19 Neutron Activation Analysis
	19.1 Principles of Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA)
		19.1.1 Neutron Activation of Materials
		19.1.2 Prompt Gamma NAA (PGNAA)
		19.1.3 Delayed NAA (DNAA)
		19.1.4 Radiochemical and Instrumental NAA
	19.2 General Equation
		19.2.1 The Mass Equation
		19.2.2 Mass Determination Methods
	19.3 Sensitivity, Interferences, and Limitations
		19.3.1 Analysis of the Mass Equation. Design of an NAA Experiment
		19.3.2 Types of Interferences
	19.4 Experimental Systems
		19.4.1 Radioisotope Sources
		19.4.2 Nuclear Reactors
		19.4.3 Neutron Generators. Accelerator-Based Neutron Sources
	19.5 Other Neutron-Based Analytical Techniques
		19.5.1 Neutron Resonance Capture Analysis
		19.5.2 Neutron Resonance Transmission Analysis
	19.6 Applications to Environmental Radioactivity
	References
20 Radioactive Particle Characterization
	20.1 Radioactive Particle Characterization
	20.2 Radioactive Particle Identification and Isolation
		20.2.1 Radiometric Methods
		20.2.2 Imaging Techniques
		20.2.3 Particle Isolation and Manipulation
	20.3 Radioactive Particle Size, Morphology, and Composition
		20.3.1 Electron Microscopy
		20.3.2 Computed Tomography (CT)
		20.3.3 Nano- and µ-XRF Techniques
		20.3.4 Nuclear Microprobes
	20.4 Radioactive Particle Characterization
		20.4.1 X-ray Diffraction (XRD)
		20.4.2 XANES and EXAFS
		20.4.3 Electron Spectroscopy Techniques (EELS, STEM-HAADF)
	References
Index