Designing Effective Instruction

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 7
Copyright Page......Page 8
Preface......Page 11
Acknowledgments......Page 13
About the Authors......Page 15
Contents......Page 17
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Instructional Design Process......Page 28
 Getting Started......Page 54
  Why Do Instructional Design?......Page 30
  What Are the Benefits of Instructional Design?......Page 31
  Applying the Process to Both Academic Education and Training Programs......Page 32
 What Is Instructional Design?......Page 34
  Instructional Design and Human Performance Technology......Page 36
  Contexts for Instructional Design......Page 37
  Premises Underlying the Instructional Design Process......Page 38
 Overview of Our Design Model......Page 42
  Content Sequencing......Page 43
  Evaluation Instruments......Page 44
  Ongoing Processes......Page 46
  Evaluator......Page 47
 Answering the Critics......Page 48
 Summary......Page 50
 Answers......Page 51
 References......Page 52
 Is Instruction the Answer?......Page 56
 Needs Assessment......Page 57
  Types of Needs and Data Sources......Page 59
  Conducting a Needs Assessment......Page 62
  Example Needs Assessment Plan......Page 65
 Goal Analysis......Page 66
  Six Steps of Goal Analysis......Page 67
 Performance Assessment......Page 69
 Summary......Page 71
 Application......Page 72
 Answers......Page 73
 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices......Page 74
 References......Page 75
 Getting Started......Page 78
 Types of Learner Characteristics......Page 80
  Specific Entry Characteristics......Page 81
  Learning Styles......Page 82
  Personal and Social Characteristics......Page 83
  Culturally Diverse Learners......Page 84
  Learners with Disabilities......Page 85
  Adult Learners......Page 86
  Types of Context......Page 89
  Conducting a Contextual Analysis......Page 91
 The ID Process......Page 93
 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices......Page 94
 References......Page 96
 Getting Started......Page 100
 Task Analysis......Page 102
  Content Structures......Page 103
 Topic Analysis......Page 105
  Analyzing a Topic......Page 106
 Procedural Analysis......Page 108
  Going Beyond Procedural Analysis......Page 112
 The Critical Incident Method......Page 115
  Techniques for Gathering Data......Page 117
  Recording Methods......Page 118
 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices......Page 123
 The ID Process......Page 119
 Answer......Page 120
 Quality Management......Page 122
 References......Page 125
 Function of Objectives......Page 128
  Cognitive Domain......Page 130
  Psychomotor Domain......Page 131
  Interrelation of Domains......Page 132
  The Basis for Objectives......Page 133
  Behavioral Objectives......Page 134
  Optional Parts......Page 135
  Cognitive Objectives......Page 137
 Writing Objectives for the Psychomotor Domain......Page 140
 Writing Objectives for the Affective Domain......Page 141
  Expanded Performance-Content Matrix Model......Page 142
 Pros and Cons of Writing Objectives......Page 144
 The ID Process......Page 145
 Answers......Page 146
 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices......Page 147
 References......Page 149
 Getting Started......Page 150
  Learning-Related Sequencing......Page 152
  World-Related Sequencing......Page 154
  Concept-Related Sequencing......Page 155
 From Objectives to Sequencing......Page 158
 Application......Page 159
 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices......Page 160
 References......Page 162
 Getting Started......Page 164
  Foundations for the Prescriptions......Page 166
  Generative Strategies......Page 167
 Prescriptions for Instructional Strategies......Page 168
  Prescriptions for Teaching Facts......Page 170
  Prescriptions for Teaching Concepts......Page 172
  Prescriptions for Teaching Principles and Rules......Page 173
  Prescriptions for Teaching Procedures......Page 175
  Prescriptions for Teaching Interpersonal Skills......Page 178
  Prescriptions for Teaching Attitudes......Page 179
 Summary......Page 180
 Applications......Page 181
 Quality Management......Page 182
 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices......Page 183
 References......Page 185
 Getting Started......Page 188
 Preinstructional Strategies......Page 190
  Objectives......Page 191
  Overviews......Page 192
  Advance Organizers......Page 193
  Signaling the Text's Schema......Page 194
  Typographical Signals......Page 196
  Effectiveness......Page 200
  The Function of Pictures......Page 202
  Using Pictures in Instruction......Page 206
 Applications......Page 207
 Quality Management......Page 208
 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices......Page 209
 References......Page 211
 Getting Started......Page 214
  Staying Focused......Page 216
 Heuristics for Developing Instruction......Page 217
  Make It Concrete......Page 218
  Control the Step Size......Page 219
  Maintain Consistency......Page 220
  Preinstructional Strategy......Page 221
  Transitions......Page 222
  Cognitive Load......Page 223
  Limitations......Page 231
  Guidelines for Effective Lecturing......Page 232
  Distance Education......Page 234
 Self-Paced Learning......Page 236
  Limitations......Page 237
  Design Checklist......Page 238
  Strengths......Page 239
  Formats......Page 240
 Summary......Page 242
 The ID Process......Page 243
 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices......Page 244
 References......Page 245
 Getting Started......Page 250
 Individualized Computer- and Web-Based Instruction......Page 252
  Tutorials......Page 253
  Games......Page 254
 Design Considerations for Individualized Computer and Web-Based Instruction......Page 255
  Learner Control......Page 256
  Feedback......Page 258
  Designing Interactions......Page 260
  Using Multimedia......Page 264
  A Group Approach to Distance Instruction......Page 268
  Avoiding the Shovelware Trap......Page 269
 Application......Page 270
 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices......Page 271
 References......Page 273
 Getting Started......Page 278
  Formative Evaluation......Page 280
  Summative Evaluation......Page 283
 Relationship Among Formative, Summative, and Confirmative Evaluations......Page 284
  Processes and Products......Page 285
 Relationship Between Evaluation and Instructional Objectives......Page 286
 Suggested Measures for Alternative Outcomes......Page 287
  Validity......Page 289
  Reliability......Page 290
  Relative Standards......Page 293
  Absolute Standards......Page 294
  Standards Versus Conventional Measurement......Page 295
  Testing for Prerequisites......Page 297
  Benefits of Pretesting......Page 298
 Summary......Page 300
 The ID Process......Page 301
 Answer......Page 302
 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices......Page 303
 References......Page 304
 Getting Started......Page 306
  The Relationship Between Evaluation and Instructional Objectives......Page 308
  Objective Tests......Page 309
  Constructed-Response Tests......Page 315
 Testing Skills and Behavior......Page 321
  Preliminary Considerations......Page 323
  Types of Skill/Behavior Assessments......Page 324
  Two Uses of Attitude Assessment......Page 333
  Assessment of Behavior......Page 334
  Questionnaire/Survey......Page 335
  Interview......Page 336
 The ID Process......Page 338
 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices......Page 339
 References......Page 342
 Getting Started......Page 344
  Purposes......Page 346
  Resources......Page 347
  Data-Gathering Techniques......Page 348
  Analysis......Page 349
  Reporting......Page 350
  Connoisseur-Based Studies......Page 351
  Decision-Oriented Studies......Page 352
  Constructivist-Oriented Process......Page 353
 Stages of Formative Evaluation......Page 354
  Evaluation Versus Research......Page 355
 Program Effectiveness......Page 356
  Summative Evaluation Methods......Page 358
  Learner Time Required......Page 359
  Use of Facilities......Page 360
  Developmental Costs......Page 361
  Operational Costs......Page 362
  Instructional Cost Index......Page 363
 Confirmative Evaluation: Determining Outcomes Over Time......Page 364
  Approaches to Confirmative Evaluation......Page 365
  Educational Programs......Page 366
  Training Programs......Page 367
 Reporting Results of Summative and Confirmative Evaluations......Page 368
 Summary......Page 369
 The ID Process......Page 370
 Answer......Page 371
 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices......Page 372
 References......Page 373
 Getting Started......Page 376
 Introduction......Page 378
  Instructional Theory......Page 379
  Applications of Instructional Theories and Models......Page 380
  Types of Learning Theory......Page 381
  Cognitive Theory......Page 385
 Summary......Page 392
 The ID Process......Page 393
 Application......Page 395
 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices......Page 396
 References......Page 397
 Planned Change......Page 400
  Innovation......Page 402
  Time......Page 403
 The CLER Model......Page 404
  Configuration......Page 405
  Resources......Page 406
  Environment......Page 409
  Implementation Plan......Page 410
 Developmental Stages and Information Decision Process Models......Page 411
  Program Promotion......Page 412
  Instructional Delivery......Page 413
  Materials......Page 414
 Role of Supervisors......Page 415
 Application......Page 416
 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices......Page 417
 References......Page 418
 Getting Started......Page 420
  Project Planning......Page 422
  Management Activities......Page 426
  Completing the Project......Page 427
 Project Agreement and Proposal Preparation......Page 428
 Instructional Design in Organizations......Page 433
  Placement Within the Organization......Page 434
 Working with the Subject-Matter Expert and Consultants......Page 435
  The Subject-Matter Expert in Different Roles......Page 436
  Working with Other Consultants and Team Members......Page 437
  Common Legal Problems in Training......Page 438
 The ID Process......Page 440
 Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices......Page 441
 References......Page 442
Glossary......Page 463
Index......Page 467