Design of Materials and Technologies for Environmental Remediation

Series Preface
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
Part I: Background
	Environmental Pollution and Remediation
		1 Introduction
		2 Environmental Pollution Problems in Japan
			2.1 Occurrence of ``Ko-gai´´: Public Pollution Problems
			2.2 Low-Concentration Pollution Problem
			2.3 Contamination with Radionuclides by Nuclear Power Plant Accident
		3 Environmental Remediation
			3.1 Concepts of Environmental Remediation
			3.2 Classification of Remediation Technologies
				3.2.1 Containment
				3.2.2 Separation
				3.2.3 Decomposition
		4 Combination of Remediation Methods
		5 Selection and Evaluation of Environmental Remediation Technology
		6 Design of Environmental Materials for Remediation
		7 Contents of This Book
		8 Conclusion
		References
	Some Pollution Problems to Consider the Design for Remediation
		1 Introduction
		2 Pollution Problems in Indonesia
			2.1 Current Environmental Issues in Indonesia
				2.1.1 Citarum River
				2.1.2 Kahayan River
				2.1.3 Crude Oil Sludge
				2.1.4 Tailing Soil
			2.2 Pollution with Mercury by Illegal Gold Mining in Indonesia
				2.2.1 Past and Current Situations of Illegal Gold Mining
				2.2.2 Remediation of Mercury Contaminated Water and Soil
				2.2.3 Conclusion
		3 Nitrobenzene Pollution in Songhua River in China
			3.1 Background
			3.2 Responses
				3.2.1 Emergency Measures After the Explosion Accident
				3.2.2 Five Years Prevention and Control Plan (2006-2010)
			3.3 Data Analysis
				3.3.1 Determination of NB Concentration
				3.3.2 Detection of each Index in the Songhua River
				3.3.3 Safety Assessment
			3.4 Conclusions
		4 Salt Damages in Bangladesh
			4.1 Introduction
			4.2 Process of Salinity
			4.3 Seasonal Variation in Salinity
			4.4 Groundwater Extraction and Salinity
			4.5 Shrimp Cultivation
			4.6 Impacts of Salinity on Agriculture
			4.7 Impact of Salinity on Public Health and Well-Being
			4.8 Impacts of Salinity on the Mangrove Ecosystem
			4.9 Concluding Remarks
		5 Soil Contamination of Railroad Station with Lead
			5.1 Introduction
			5.2 Contents of Lead and Tin in the Contaminated Soils
			5.3 Chemical Species of Lead in Soil by Sequential Extraction
			5.4 Isotope Analysis of Lead in Soil Samples
			5.5 Conclusion
		6 Conclusion
		References
Part II: Effects and Evaluation
	Effects of Metals on Human Health and Ecosystem
		1 Introduction
		2 Properties of Metals
		3 Sources of Metal Pollution
		4 Metal Toxicity
			4.1 Modes of Action
			4.2 The Factors Affecting Metal Toxicity
		5 Metals and Their Effect on Human and Environment
			5.1 Pb and Its Effects
			5.2 Hg and Its Effects
			5.3 Cd and Its Effects
			5.4 Cu and Its Effects
			5.5 As and Its Effects
			5.6 Cr and Its Effects
				5.6.1 Effects of Cr in Plants and Animals
			5.7 Mn and Its Effect
			5.8 Al and Its Effects
			5.9 Ag and Its Effect
		6 Combined Effects of Heavy Metals
		7 Concluding Remarks
		References
	Effects of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in the Ecosystem and Human Health: Focusing on Chlorinated Chemicals
		1 Background: Persistent Organic Substances in the Environment
		2 Chlorinated Chemicals in Humans
			2.1 Exposure Levels in Humans
			2.2 Health Effects
			2.3 Findings from a Birth Cohort: Hokkaido Study
				2.3.1 Overview of the Hokkaido Study
				2.3.2 Exposure Levels in Pregnant Women
				2.3.3 Associations Between Health Outcomes
		3 Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Research
		References
Part III: Introduction of Novel Functions and Materials into Remediation Technologies
	Electrokinetic Remediation
		1 Introduction
		2 Principles
		3 Design of Experimental Conditions
			3.1 Equipment Scale and Material
			3.2 Electrical Conditions
			3.3 Energy Resource
			3.4 Soil Properties
			3.5 Impacts on the Environment
			3.6 Cost Efficiency
		4 Advanced EK Remediation
			4.1 Solubilization
			4.2 Humic Substances
				4.2.1 Removal of Cu-Oxine with Humic Acid
				4.2.2 Reduction and Removal of Cr(VI)
				4.2.3 Complex Formation
			4.3 Accumulation
				4.3.1 pH Junction
				4.3.2 Electrodialysis
				4.3.3 Entrapment Zone
			4.4 Decomposition and Transformation
				4.4.1 ZVI Reaction Zone
				4.4.2 Decomposition
		5 Electro-Assisted Phytoremediation
			5.1 Influence of Electrode Configuration
			5.2 Application of EAPR Systems on Contaminated Water
			5.3 Combination with Other Technologies for the Remediation of Contaminated Water
		6 Disaster Pollution
			6.1 Saline Soil
			6.2 Radioactive Species
			6.3 Cesium Pollution
			6.4 Interaction with Soil Components
			6.5 Application for Contaminated Radioactive Waste
		7 Conclusion
		References
	Phytoremediation: Background, Principle, and Application, Plant Species Used for Phytoremediation
		1 Introduction
		2 Principles of Phytoremediation
		3 Factors Considering for Effective Phytoremediation Technique
			3.1 Enrichment Factor (EF)
			3.2 Translocation Factor (TF)
			3.3 Bio-Concentration Factors (BCF)
			3.4 Phytodesalination Capacity (PDC)
		4 Applications
			4.1 Phytoremediation of Organic Pollutants
			4.2 Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals/Inorganic Pollutants
			4.3 Improved Quality of Wastewater Through Phytoremediation
			4.4 Use of Halophytes to Remediate Saline Soils
		5 Plants Species Suitable for Phytoremediation
		6 Advantages of Phytoremediation
		7 Post-Harvest Management of Plants for Phytoremediation
		8 Limitations of Phytoremediation
		9 Conclusion
		References
	Electrochemical Decomposition and Adsorption for Removal of Organic Pollutants from Water
		1 Removal of Organic Pollutants from Water Using Electrochemical Techniques
		2 Electrochemical Polymerization-Based Organic Pollutant Removal
			2.1 Electrochemical Oxidation Behavior of Bisphenol A and Its Derivatives
			2.2 Electrochemical Adsorption Using Carbon Fibers for Removal of Bisphenol A and Its Derivatives
			2.3 Electrochemical Adsorption Using Carbon Fibers for Removal of Other Organic Compounds
				2.3.1 Removal of Aniline
				2.3.2 Removal of Estrogens
				2.3.3 Removal of p-Nonylphenol
				2.3.4 Removal of Phenol and Chlorinated Phenols
			2.4 Electrochemical Adsorption Using Different Electrode Materials
				2.4.1 Carbon Nanotube-Covered Polyester Yarn Electrode
				2.4.2 PbO2 Electrode
				2.4.3 Carbon Electrode
				2.4.4 Stainless Steel Electrode
				2.4.5 Carbon Aerogel Electrode
				2.4.6 Polyaniline Electrode
		3 Conclusions
		References
	Bioremediation: From Key Enzymes to Practical Technologies
		1 Microbial Degradation of Stable Hydrocarbon Pollutants
			1.1 Alkane Monooxygenase/Hydroxylase
			1.2 Rieske Dioxygenase
		2 Efficacy of Biofilm Formation by Naphthalene Degrading Bacteria for Bioremediation
			2.1 Naphthalene Degradation by T102 Biofilms and Planktonic Cells
			2.2 Comparison of Expression Levels of nahA in T102 Biofilms and Planktonic Cells
			2.3 Fitness of T102 Biofilms and Planktonic Cells in Petroleum Contaminated Soils
			2.4 Naphthalene Degradation Activity of Soils Containing T102 Biofilms and Planktonic Cells
			2.5 Summary
		3 Biosurfactants
			3.1 Isolation of BS-Producing Bacteria
			3.2 Production and Purification of BS
			3.3 Types and Structures of BS
				3.3.1 Glycolipid-Type BS
					Rhamnolipid
					Sophorolipid
				3.3.2 Lipopeptide-Type Biosurfactant
			3.4 Structure-Activity Relationships of BS
			3.5 Synthetic Mechanisms of Arthrofactin and Encoding Gene Cluster
		4 Conclusion
		References
Part IV: Design of Environmental Materials
	Environmentally Friendly Adsorbents
		1 Introduction
		2 Adsorbent Based on Solid Waste Materials
			2.1 Paper Sludge for Removal of Cadmium Ion in Water
			2.2 Adsorbent Based on Drinking Water Treatment Plant Sludge
			2.3 Adsorbent Based on Platanus Leaf
			2.4 Conclusion
		3 Agricultural Products and Waste-Based Absorbents
			3.1 Konjac Glucomannan Gel Embedded with Activated Carbon
			3.2 Spent Coffee Ground
			3.3 Auricularia Auricularia
			3.4 Biochar from AA Dregs
			3.5 Carbon Material
			3.6 Conclusion
		4 Utilization of a Fermented Bark Amendment That Can Be Assimilated into Soil
			4.1 Suppression of Cadmium Uptake in Rice Using Fermented Bark
				4.1.1 Introduction
				4.1.2 N, P, and K Contents in FBA
				4.1.3 Rice Cultivation in Pot
				4.1.4 Effects of FBA Application and Water Regimes
				4.1.5 Effect of a Timing for FBA Application
				4.1.6 Suppression Mechanism of Cd Uptake with FBA
			4.2 Application of FBA to Large-Scale Crop Cultivation
				4.2.1 Introduction
				4.2.2 Variations of Cd Content in Rice after Spraying FBWA onto Contaminated Soil
				4.2.3 Rice Yield
			4.3 Simultaneous Suppression of Magnetic Nanoscale Powder and Fermented Bark Amendment for As and Cd Uptake by Radish Sprouts ...
				4.3.1 Introduction
				4.3.2 Preparation of MNP
				4.3.3 Adsorption Capabilities for Arsenate, Arsenic, and Cadmium
				4.3.4 Determination of the As and Cd Concentrations in Radish Sprouts
				4.3.5 Suppression of As and Cd Uptakes into Radish Sprouts
			4.4 Conclusion
		5 Conclusion
		References
	Preparation and Modification of Activated Carbon Surface and Functions for Environments
		1 Pollution of Aquatic Environment
		2 Adsorbents for Organic Pollutants
		3 Adsorbents for Ionic Pollutants
			3.1 Cationic Contaminants
				3.1.1 Surface Functional Groups for Cations
				3.1.2 Adsorption Kinetics
			3.2 Anionic Contaminants
				3.2.1 Surface Functional Groups/Sites (Nitrogen and Cπ Sites) for Anions
				3.2.2 Surface Nitrogen (Alkyl Amine Type)
				3.2.3 Surface Nitrogen (Quaternary Nitrogen, N-Q)
		4 Conclusion
		References
	Pyrolysis to Produce Hydrochar and Biochar Carbon Material for Carbon Removal and Sustainable Environmental Technology
		1 Introduction
		2 Biowaste Streams for Thermal Treatment
			2.1 Composition of Agroforestry Waste (AFWs)
			2.2 Municipal Solid Waste
		3 Hydrothermal Carbonization (HGT)
			3.1 Feedstock Nature
		4 Pyrolysis for Biochar Production
			4.1 Slow Pyrolysis, Temperature Regulation
			4.2 Pyrolysis Atmosphere
			4.3 Co-Pyrolysis of Biomass with Activator/Dopant
			4.4 Activation by Chemical Agents
				4.4.1 Activation by H2O2
				4.4.2 Activation by Metals
			4.5 The Quality and Safety of the Produced Biochars
		5 Biochar for the Remediation of Contaminated Soil and Water
			5.1 Heavy Metals
			5.2 Phytoremediation and Related Microbes
			5.3 Organic Pollutants
		6 Toward Circular Economy: Recycled Waste for Biochar Production
			6.1 Novel Applications of Biochar
				6.1.1 Carbon Sequestration for Carbon Neutrality
				6.1.2 Composting
				6.1.3 Livestock
				6.1.4 Concrete
		7 Conclusion
		References
	Graphene Oxide for Elimination of Dyes
		1 Introduction
			1.1 Water Pollution
			1.2 Adsorbent from Macro Through Micro to Nano
				1.2.1 Surface Area
				1.2.2 Interfacial Functionalities
			1.3 Nano Planar Carbon Adsorbent
		2 Synthesis of Graphene Oxide
			2.1 From Pristine Graphite
			2.2 From Graphite with Expanded Structure
		3 Frequently-Used Process Theories for Adsorption on Graphene Oxide
			3.1 Isotherms
			3.2 Kinetics
			3.3 Route Models of Adsorption
		4 Dye Removal by Pristine GO
			4.1 SER Adsorption
			4.2 MER Adsorption
		5 Dye Adsorption by Modified GO
			5.1 Via Surface Functionalization
			5.2 Via Immobilization
		6 Conclusion and Outlook
		References
	Heterogeneous Catalysts for Environmental Purification
		1 Catalysts as Indispensable Materials in Today´s Lives
		2 How Does a Catalysts Work?
		3 Purification of Water with Catalytic Reactions
			3.1 Groundwater Pollution with Nitrate
			3.2 Purification Methods for the Polluted Groundwater
			3.3 Catalytic Reduction of NO3- for Purification of the Polluted Groundwater
			3.4 Purification of Real Groundwater by the Catalytic Method with the CuPd Catalyst
			3.5 A Supported SnPd Catalyst for Purification of Real Polluted Groundwater
			3.6 Alternative Methods Without Gaseous Hydrogen On-Site
		4 Prospect
		References
	Coal Fly/Bottom Ash, Hydroxylapatite, and Hydrotalcite
		1 Coal Ash for the Adsorption of Dyes and Heavy Metal Ions in the Environments
			1.1 Introduction to Coal Ash
			1.2 Coal Bottom Ash (CBA)
			1.3 Coal Fly Ash (CFA)
			1.4 Acid Activation of Coal Ash
			1.5 Modification of Coal Ash with Organic Ligand
			1.6 Examples of Applications
				1.6.1 Adsorption of Cationic and Anionic Dyes
				1.6.2 Adsorption of Metal Ions
			1.7 Conclusion
		2 New Functions of Hydroxyapatite in the Environmental and Medical Applications
			2.1 Introduction
			2.2 The Importance of Geometrical in the Scaffolds for Bone Reconstruction
				2.2.1 Preparation of HAP-Derived Geometrical Scaffolds
				2.2.2 Application of a Vital Growth Factor: Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMP)
				2.2.3 Early Findings in the Geometry that Induce Bone Effectively
					Size and Shape of Pores
					Concept of Optimal Spaces for Tissue Formation
				2.2.4 Side by Side Induction of Blood Vessel and Bone in the Tunnel Structure
					Mechanism of Tunnel Effects
					An Example of a Chamber-Type Scaffold
			2.3 Removal of Arsenate from Environmental Water by Hydroxyapatite Chromatographic System
				2.3.1 Needs for Water Purification in Asian Countries
				2.3.2 Preparation of Hydroxyapatite from a Scallop Shell and Bovine Bone
				2.3.3 The Chromatographic Estimation of Adsorbing Ability for Arsenate
				2.3.4 Results of as-Removal by HAPs from Shell and Bone
			2.4 Conclusion
		3 Layered Double Hydroxides (LDHs) for Removal of Drug Trace in the Environment
			3.1 Introduction to Layered Double Hydroxide (LDHs)
			3.2 Syntheses of LDHs
				3.2.1 Salt-Oxide Method
				3.2.2 Salt-Base Method
				3.2.3 Stoichiometric Method
				3.2.4 Metal Alcoholate Method
				3.2.5 Heat Treatment of Metal Oxides Suspensions
			3.3 Anion Exchange Properties of LDHs
			3.4 Common Applications
				3.4.1 LDH for Removal of Drug Traces in the Environment
		4 Conclusion
		References
	Bio-Inspired Materials for Environmental Remediation
		1 Background
			1.1 Micropollutants
			1.2 Adsorbents for Removing Contaminants
			1.3 Designing Biomimetic Adsorbents
		2 Cyclodextrin Linked Chitosan
			2.1 Cyclodextrin
			2.2 Characteristics of Chitosan
			2.3 Pioneering Researches on CD Linked Chitosan
			2.4 CD-Linked Chitosan Gel Beads
			2.5 Adsorbents for MPs Removal
			2.6 Recent Progress in CD-Based Adsorbents for MPs Removal
		3 Encapsulated Biomass for MPs Removal
			3.1 Immobilized Biomass
			3.2 Nonyl Phenol Removal by Immobilized Biomass
			3.3 Recent Applications to Removal of MPs
		4 DNA Based Adsorbent
			4.1 DNA Intercalation
			4.2 DNA Based Adsorbents
			4.3 Application to MPs Uptake
		5 EDTA-Chitosan
			5.1 Chelation
			5.2 Preparation of Water-Soluble EDTA-Linked Chitosan
			5.3 Metal Ion Removal by ED-ch Flocculation
			5.4 Some Applications of EDTA-Linked Chitosan
		6 Conclusion
		References
	Zero-Valent Iron and Some Other Nanometal Particles for Environmental Remediation
		1 General Introduction
		2 Zero-Valent Iron in Environmental Remediation
			2.1 Synthesis
				2.1.1 Synthesis of Pristine nZVI
					Physical Methods
					Chemical Methods
			2.2 Composites of nZVI/Modification
				2.2.1 Surface Modification
				2.2.2 Conjugation with Supports
				2.2.3 Magnetism and Emulsification
			2.3 Environmental Application
				2.3.1 Removal of Heavy Metals
				2.3.2 Removal of Organic Compounds
			2.4 Toxicity of nZVI and Future Prospects
		3 Nanomaterials in Environmental Remediation
			3.1 Synthesis of Nanomaterials
			3.2 Nanoparticles with Potential Remediation Applications
		4 Conclusion
		References
Part V: Easily Collectable Adsorbents
	Magnetic Separation of Pollutants for Environmental Remediation
		1 Materials for Magnetic Separation
			1.1 Features of Magnetic Separation
			1.2 Magnetic Materials for Magnetic Separation
			1.3 Preparation of Magnetic Adsorbent
			1.4 Application of Magnetic Adsorbents in Environmental Science
		2 Surface-Modified Magnetic Adsorbents
			2.1 Surface Modification for Magnetic Materials
			2.2 Hydrophobic Group Modified Magnetic Adsorbents
			2.3 Cyclodextrin Modified Magnetic Adsorbent
			2.4 Prussian-Blue Modified Magnetic Adsorbents
		3 Magnetic Polysaccharide Composites
			3.1 Remediation of Dyes and Heavy Metal Ion Contaminated Water by Magnetic Adsorbent
			3.2 Chitosan Based Magnetic Adsorbent
			3.3 Alginate Based Magnetic Adsorbent
			3.4 Cellulose Based Magnetic Adsorbent
			3.5 Pectin Based Magnetic Adsorbent
			3.6 Future Perspectives
		4 Functionalized Natural Magnetic Materials
			4.1 Natural Magnetic Materials from Iron Sand
				4.1.1 Resources and Composition of Iron Sand
				4.1.2 Separation of Magnetic Materials from Iron Sand
			4.2 Functionalization of Natural Magnetic Materials with Functional Groups and the Application as Adsorbents
				4.2.1 Functionalization with Amine Groups
				4.2.2 Functionalization with Chitosan
				4.2.3 Functionalization with Mercaptans
				4.2.4 Functionalization with Sulfonate
		5 Conclusion
		References
	Easily Collectable Floating-Up Adsorbents to Remove Pollutants
		1 Background of Floating Adsorbents (Collection of Adsorbents)
		2 Design of Floating-Up Adsorbent by Controlling the Specific Gravity of Adsorbent
			2.1 Introduction
			2.2 Preparation of Alginate Gel Beads with a Weight and a Float
			2.3 The Effect of NaHCO3 and CaCO3 on the Specific Gravity of Alginate Gel Beads
			2.4 Floating Time of Alginate Gel Beads
			2.5 Removal of Lead Ion Existing at the Bottom of Water Using CaCO3-CO2 Bubble-AG
			2.6 Conclusion
		3 Use of Shirasu Balloon as a Floating Adsorbent
			3.1 Introduction
			3.2 Preparation of SB Adsorbents
			3.3 Removal of Cadmium Ion
			3.4 Collection of SB from Soil
			3.5 Conclusions
		4 Adsorbent Which Can Repeat Floating and Sinking
			4.1 Introduction
			4.2 Fermentation Model and Kinetics
			4.3 Floating Profile of the Beads
			4.4 Vertical Migration Behavior of the Beads
			4.5 Conclusion
		5 Adsorption Kinetic Model of Alginate Gel Beads Synthesized Micro Particle-Prussian Blue to Remove Cesium Ions from Water
			5.1 Introduction
			5.2 Preparation of PB-AG Beads
			5.3 Characterization of PB-AG Beads
			5.4 Removal of Cs Ions by PB-AG Beads
			5.5 Removal of Cesium Ion in Water Column Using a Vertical Migration System of Alginate Gel Beads
			5.6 Conclusion
		6 Conclusion
		References
	Remediation by Floating Plants
		1 What Is Phytodegradation Mechanism?
		2 Phytodegradation of Phenolic EDCs by Enhanced Common Reed Phragmites
			2.1 Rhizobacterial Strains TIK1 and IT4 That Are Capable of Degrading Phenolic EDCs
			2.2 Demonstration of TIK1 and IT4 to Degrade Phenolic EDCs with Organic Compounds Exuded by Phragmites Roots
			2.3 Construction of Phragmites/TIK1 or Phragmites/IT4 Association Systems and Degradation of Phenolic EDCs
			2.4 Continuous Removal of Phenolic EDCs from Polluted Effluent by Use of a Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) System Containing Ph...
		3 Tiny Floating Plant, Duckweeds, a Multi-Talented Phytoremediation Device
			3.1 Isolation of Phenol-Degrading Bacteria from the Surface of the Duckweed, Lemna aoukikusa
			3.2 Preparation of Enhanced Duckweed on Which Surface Is Dominated by Acinetobacter P23, the L. aoukikusa/P23 System
			3.3 Stability of Phenol Degradation by L. aoukikusa/P23 Association System
			3.4 Growth Promotion of Duckweed by P23 Colonization
		4 Water Purification and Biomass Production Using Two Ponds System Toward Practical Use for Enhanced Duckweeds
			4.1 Nutrients Removal, Phytoextraction, and Biomass Production Capacity of Enhanced Duckweeds in Two-Step Cultivation
			4.2 Duration of Plant Growth-Promoting Effects After Pre-inoculation of P23
			4.3 Persistence of P23 on Duckweed Surface
			4.4 Shifts in Duckweed-Associated Microbial Community
			4.5 Outlook for Future
		5 Environmental Technologies ``to the Duckweed and from the Duckweed´´ That Have Potentials to Contribute to Establishing Sust...
			5.1 Duckweed as a Protein Resource
			5.2 Duckweed as a Starch Resource
			5.3 Utilization of PGPB for Accelerating Duckweed Industries
		References