Degradation of Elastomers in Practice, Experiments and Modeling

Preface
Contents
Basic Mechanisms and Predictive Testing of Tire-Road Abrasion
	1 Introduction
	2 Tire-Road Abrasion Mechanisms
	3 Experimental
	4 Laboratory Prediction of Fatigue Wear of Tires
	5 Results and Discussion
	6 Conclusions
	References
Thermo-Oxidative Aging and Mechanical Fatigue of Elastomer Compounds Used in Various Fields of Rubber Industry
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Materials
		1.2 Sample Pool
		1.3 Sample Preparation
	2 Experimental Techniques
		2.1 Physical Properties
		2.2 Mechanical Fatigue
		2.3 Temperature Measurement During Mechanical Aging
		2.4 Thermal Aging
	3 Results and Discussion
		3.1 Tire Tread Compounds (SBR, NR, BR/SBR)
			3.1.1 High Filler Loading (90 phr Filler +30 phr Oil)
			3.1.2 Low Filler Loading (50 phr Filler)
			3.1.3 Influence of Filler Type and Amount for Tire Tread Compounds
		3.2 Technical Rubbers (HNBR, CR, EPDM)
		3.3 High Temperature Resistant Rubbers (ACM, FKM)
		3.4 Analysis of Force Decreases During Mechanical Aging
			3.4.1 Relation of Sample Temperature to Dissipated Energy
			3.4.2 Relation Between Force Decrease and Sample Temperature
			3.4.3 Comparison of Tire Tread Compounds (NR, SBR, BR/SBR)
			3.4.4 Technical Rubbers (HNBR, CR, EPDM)
			3.4.5 High Temperature Resistant Compounds (ACM, FKM)
			3.4.6 Evaluation of Internal Sample Temperature
		3.5 Crack Propagation Analysis
			3.5.1 Crack Growth Behavior for Selected Material Classes
		3.6 Summarizing Mechanical and Thermal Influences
	4 Conclusions
	Appendix: Summary of Used Materials
		Polymers
		Fillers
		Plasticizer and Processing Aids
		Anti-Aging Chemicals
		Vulcanization Chemicals
	References
Novel Approach on Analyzing Mechanochemical Wear Mechanism of Rubber Vulcanizates in Molecular Scale
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Wear of Tires
		1.2 Mechanochemical Wear of Tire Rubber
		1.3 Multiscale Simulation
		1.4 Mechanochemical Analysis with QCC
	2 Simulations and Experiments
		2.1 Quantum Chemical Simulations for Analyzing Mechanical Behavior
		2.2 Material Preparation
		2.3 Mechanochemical Wear Test
		2.4 Molecular Structure Analysis
			2.4.1 Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC)
			2.4.2 Near Edge X-ray Absorption Fine Structure (NEXAFS)
	3 Results and Discussion
		3.1 Quantum Mechanics Simulations for Investigating Effect of Molecular Structure on Mechanical Strength and Reactivity with O...
		3.2 Effect of Oxidation on Rubber Wear Behavior
		3.3 Effect of Molecular Structure on Mechanochemical Wear
		3.4 Effect of Oxygen on Molecular Weight Distribution of Wear Particles
		3.5 Effect of Molecular Structure on Reactivity with Oxygen
	4 Conclusion
	References
Tire-Abrasion Particles in the Environment
	1 Introduction
	2 Emission of Tire-Wear Particles
		2.1 Emission Estimates
		2.2 Global TRWP Emissions
	3 Characteristics of Tire-Wear Particles
		3.1 Physical Features
		3.2 Chemical Composition
	4 Immission of Tire- and Road-Wear Particles
		4.1 Road Surface
		4.2 Atmosphere
		4.3 Runoff and Wastewater
		4.4 Soil and Vegetation
		4.5 Surface Water and Groundwater
		4.6 Sediments
	5 Toxicity
		5.1 TRWP Components of Concern
		5.2 Toxic Effects
	6 Reducing TRWP Pollution
		6.1 Reducing Emissions
		6.2 Reducing Immissions
	7 Conclusions
	References
Multiphysical Modeling and Simulation of Thermal Damage of Elastomers: State of the Art and Developments Towards Cyber-Physica...
	1 Introduction
	2 Modeling of Thermal Damage
	3 Setup of a Cyber-Physical System
	4 Conclusion
	References
Experimental and Numerical Description of the Heat Build-Up in Rubber Under Cyclic Loading
	1 Introduction
	2 Experimental
		2.1 Material
		2.2 Three-Point Bending
		2.3 Heat Build-Up (HBU) Experiment
	3 Heat Build-Up (HBU) Numerical Calculation
	4 Results and Discussion
	5 Conclusion
	References
The Effect of Thermal Ageing on the Fatigue Resistance of Hydrogenated Acrylonitrile Butadiene Rubber (HNBR) Compounds
	1 Introduction
	2 Experimental
		2.1 Tensile Tests
		2.2 Cyclic Plane Strain Fatigue
		2.3 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
		2.4 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
		2.5 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
	3 Results
	4 Conclusions
	References
Effect of Antioxidants on the Aging Behavior of NR and S-SBR Materials
	1 Introduction
	2 Aging of NR and SBR Materials and the Function of Antioxidants
	3 Materials and Methods
	4 Characterization of Aging Process and Its Influence on the Mechanical and Physical Properties of Elastomeric Materials
		4.1 Analysis of Aging Processes in NR and SBR Raw Elastomer
		4.2 Antioxidants and Their Effect on the Mechanical and Physical Properties of NR and SBR Blends After Short- and Long-Term Th...
	5 Conclusion
	References
Degradation of Tires During Intended Usage
	1 Introduction
	2 Experimental
		2.1 Fatigue Threshold
		2.2 FCG Analysis
		2.3 CC Analysis
	3 Results and Discussions
		3.1 Fatigue Threshold
		3.2 FCG Analysis
		3.3 CC Analysis
	4 Conclusion
	References
Thermal and Thermo-Oxidative Degradation of Rubbers: Some Recent Studies
	1 Introduction
	2 Principles of Elastomer Degradation
	3 Thermal and Thermo-Oxidative Degradation of Elastomers
	4 Reactive Force Field Molecular Dynamics Simulation (ReaxFF)
		4.1 Polymer Degradation from ReaxFF Molecular Simulation
		4.2 Degradation Kinetics from ReaxFF Molecular Simulation
	5 Thermo-Oxidative Degradation of Elastomers
	6 Conclusions
	References
Experimental Analysis of Fast Crack Growth in Elastomers
	1 Introduction
	2 Characterization of Fast Crack Growth
	3 Velocity Transition in Crack Growth
		3.1 Crack Growth Velocity
		3.2 Crack-Tip Shape
		3.3 Correlation Between Fast Crack Growth and Bulk Viscoelasticity
		3.4 Transition Threshold Γc
		3.5 Origin of Velocity Transition
	4 Stress-Softening Effects on Fast Crack Growth
		4.1 Anisotropic Stress-Softening
		4.2 Effect on Velocity Transition
		4.3 Effect on Crack-Tip Shape and Strain Fields
	5 Transition from Subsonic to Super-Shear Crack
		5.1 Crack Growth faster than Shear Wave Speed
		5.2 Crack-Tip Strain Fields in Subsonic and Super-Shear Cracks
	6 Biaxial Loading Effect on Quasi-Stationary Crack
		6.1 Strain Energy Release Rate Under Biaxial Loading
		6.2 Crack-Tip Strain Field and CTOD Under Biaxial Loading
	7 Conclusion
	References
The Effect of Apparent Cross-Link Density on Cut and Chip Wear in Natural Rubber
	1 Introduction
	2 Experiment and Material
	3 Results
	4 Conclusion
	References
Parameters Influencing Fatigue Characteristics of Tyre Tread Rubber Compounds
	1 Introduction
	2 Materials and Experiment
	3 Results and Discussion
		3.1 Mechanical Properties
		3.2 Fatigue Crack Growth Properties
			3.2.1 Rubber and Rubber Blends
			3.2.2 Filler
			3.2.3 Temperature
			3.2.4 Waveform
			3.2.5 R Ratio
	4 Conclusion
	References
Mechanistic and Kinetic Studies on Degradation Processes of Rubber Types
	1 Introduction
	2 Fundamentals and Overview of Aging Processes
	3 Experimental
		3.1 Materials and Methods
			3.1.1 Materials: NBR and HNBR-Systems
			3.1.2 Materials: EPDM/EPM Systems
		3.2 Methods
	4 Results
		4.1 Investigations on NBR and HNBR Materials
			4.1.1 Influence of Polymer Constitution: NBR Rubbers
			4.1.2 Influence of Polymer Constitution: HNBR Rubbers
			4.1.3 Influence of Crosslink Density and Crosslink Structure on NBR Rubber
			4.1.4 Correlation Between Chemiluminescence (CL) Measurements and Physical Properties
			4.1.5 Characterization of the Diffusion Limited Oxidation (DLO) Effect on NBR
		4.2 Investigations on EPDM Materials
			4.2.1 Investigations of Aging Behavior on Uncured EPDM/EPM
			4.2.2 Crosslinking Efficiency of Different Peroxides in Amorphous and Crystalline EPDM Rubbers
			4.2.3 Influence of the Type of Peroxide on Its Residual Content
			4.2.4 Influence of Peroxide Type and Residual Peroxide Content on Aging Behavior
			4.2.5 Relationship Between Vulcanization, Residual Peroxide Content, and Aging Behavior
			4.2.6 Influence of the Peroxide Type and Residual Peroxide Content on Aging Behavior
	5 Conclusions
	References