Dairy Chemistry and Biochemistry

Cover Page......Page 1
Title Page......Page 2
ISBN 0412720000......Page 3
Table of Contents......Page 4
Preface......Page 11
General References on Dairy Chemistry......Page 13
1.2 Composition and Variability of Milk......Page 14
1.3 Classification of Mammals......Page 16
1.4 Structure and Development of Mammary Tissue......Page 17
1.5 Ultrastructure of the Secretory Cell......Page 20
1.6.1 Arteriovenous Concentration Differences......Page 21
1.6.3 Perfusion of Isolated Gland......Page 22
1.6.6 Tissue Culture......Page 23
1.8 Production and Utilization of Milk......Page 24
1.9 Trade in Milk Products......Page 31
References......Page 33
2.1 Introduction......Page 34
2.2.2 Biosynthesis of Lactose......Page 36
2.2.3 Lactose Equilibrium in Solution......Page 38
2.2.5 Solubility of Lactose......Page 40
2.2.6 Crystallization of Lactose......Page 41
2.2.7 Problems Related to Lactose Crystallization......Page 44
2.3 Production of Lactose......Page 52
2.4.1 Enzymatic Modification of Lactose......Page 55
2.4.2 Chemical Modifications......Page 56
2.4.3 Fermentation Products......Page 63
2.5 Lactose and the Maillard Reaction......Page 67
2.6 Nutritional Aspects of Lactose......Page 69
2.6.1 Lactose Intolerance......Page 71
2.6.2 Galactosaemia......Page 74
2.7.1 Polarimetry......Page 75
2.7.2 Oxidation and Reduction Titration......Page 76
2.7.3 Colorimetric Methods......Page 77
References......Page 78
3.1 Introduction......Page 80
3.2 Factors that Affect the Fat Content of Bovine Milk......Page 81
3.3 Classes of Lipids in Milk......Page 84
3.4 Fatty Acid Profile of Milk Lipids......Page 88
3.5 Synthesis of Fatty Acids in Milk Fat......Page 94
3.6 Structure of Milk Lipids......Page 100
3.7 Milk Fat as an Emulsion......Page 103
3.8 Milk Fat Globule Membrane......Page 105
3.8.1 Isolation of the Fat Globule Membrane......Page 106
3.8.3 The Protein Fraction......Page 107
3.8.4 The Lipid Fraction......Page 108
3.8.6 Membrane Structure......Page 110
3.8.7 Secretion of Milk Lipid Globules......Page 113
3.9.1 Emulsion Stability in General......Page 117
3.9.2 The Creaming Process in Milk......Page 119
3.10.1 Milk Supply: Hydrolytic Rancidity......Page 121
3.10.2 Mechanical Separation of Milk......Page 124
3.10.3 Homogenization......Page 126
3.10.4 Heating......Page 129
3.11 Physical Defects in Milk and Cream......Page 130
3.12 Churning......Page 131
3.14 Dehydration......Page 139
3.15 Liquid Oxidation......Page 140
3.15.1 Pro-Oxidants in Milk and Milk Products......Page 143
3.15.2 Antioxidants in Milk......Page 145
3.15.4 Other Factors that Affect Lipid Oxidation in Milk and Dairy Products......Page 146
3.16.1 Fatty Acid Profile and Distribution......Page 147
3.16.2 Process Parameters......Page 150
References......Page 153
Appendices......Page 154
4.1 Introduction......Page 159
4.2 Heterogeneity of Milk Proteins......Page 162
4.2.1 Other Protein Fractions......Page 163
4.3.1 Acid (Isoelectric) Precipitation......Page 165
4.3.5 Ultrafiltration......Page 166
4.3.9 Rennet Coagulation......Page 167
4.4 Heterogeneity and Fractionation of Casein......Page 168
4.4.1 Resolution of Caseins by Electrophoresis......Page 172
4.4.2 Microheterogeneity of the Caseins......Page 173
4.4.3 Nomenclature of the Caseins......Page 175
4.5.1 Chemical Composition......Page 176
4.5.2 Secondary and Tertiary Structures......Page 188
4.5.4 Hydrophobicity......Page 191
4.5.6 Action of Rennets on Casein......Page 192
4.5.8 Casein Micelle Structure......Page 193
4.6.1 Preparation......Page 199
4.6.2 Heterogeneity of Whey Proteins......Page 200
4.7.2 Amino Acid Composition......Page 201
4.7.5 Tertiary Structure......Page 202
4.7.6 Quaternary Structure......Page 203
4.7.7 Physiological Function......Page 204
4.8.3 Primary Structure......Page 205
4.8.6 Other Species......Page 206
4.8.8 Metal Binding and Heat Stability......Page 207
4.10 Immunoglobulins (Ig)......Page 208
4.12 Non-Protein Nitrogen......Page 212
4.13 Comparison of Human and Bovine Milks......Page 213
4.14.1 Sources of Amino Acids......Page 214
4.14.3 Synthesis of Milk Proteins......Page 216
4.14.4 Modifications of the Polypeptide Chain......Page 218
4.14.5 Structure and Expression of Milk Protein Genes......Page 219
4.14.6 Secretion of Milk-Specific Proteins......Page 220
4.14.7 Secretion of Immunoglobulins......Page 222
4.15 Functional Milk Proteins......Page 223
4.15.1 Industrial Production of Caseins......Page 224
4.15.2 Novel Methods for Casein Production......Page 228
4.15.3 Fractionation of Casein......Page 229
4.15.4 Functional (Physicochemical) Properties of Caseins......Page 231
4.15.6 Whey Proteins......Page 232
4.15.7 Casein-Whey Protein Co-Precipitates......Page 240
4.16 Biologically Active Proteins and Peptides in Milk......Page 241
4.16.2 Lactotransferrin......Page 242
4.16.4 Vitamin-Binding Proteins......Page 243
4.16.6 Bifidus Factors......Page 244
4.16.7 Milk Protein Hydrolysates......Page 245
References......Page 247
Appendices......Page 250
5.2 Method of Analysis......Page 252
5.3 Composition of Milk Salts......Page 253
5.4 Secretion of Milk Salts......Page 255
5.5.1 Breed of Cow......Page 256
5.5.2 Stage of Lactation......Page 257
5.6 Interrelations of Milk Salt Constituents......Page 260
5.7.1 Methods Used to Separate the Colloidal and Soluble Phases......Page 262
5.7.2 Soluble Salts......Page 263
5.7.3 Measurement of Calcium and Magnesium Ions......Page 267
5.7.4 Colloidal Milk Salts......Page 269
5.8.1 Addition of Acid or Alkali......Page 273
5.8.3 Effect of Changes in Temperature......Page 274
5.8.5 Effect of Dilution and Concentration......Page 275
References......Page 276
6.1 Introduction......Page 278
6.2.1 Retinol (Vitamin A)......Page 279
6.2.2 Calciferols (Vitamin D)......Page 282
6.2.3 Tocopherols and Related Compounds (Vitamin E)......Page 285
6.2.4 Phylloquinone and Related Compounds (Vitamin K)......Page 287
6.3.1 Thiamin (Vitamin B1)......Page 288
6.3.2 Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)......Page 290
6.3.3 Niacin......Page 292
6.3.5 Panthothenic Acid......Page 294
6.3.6 Pyridoxine and Related Compounds (Vitamin B6)......Page 295
6.3.7 Folate......Page 298
6.3.8 Cobalamin and its Derivatives (Vitamin B12)......Page 300
6.4 Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)......Page 302
Appendices......Page 304
7.2 General Properties of Water......Page 307
7.3 Water Activity......Page 314
7.4 Water Sorption......Page 318
7.5 Glass Transition and the Role of Water in Plasticization......Page 324
7.6 Non-Equilibrium Ice Formation......Page 325
7.8 Water and the Stability of Dairy Products......Page 326
References......Page 329
8.2.1 Introduction......Page 330
8.2.2 Proteinases (EC 3.4.-.-)......Page 331
8.2.3 Lipases and Esterases (EC 3.1.1.-)......Page 335
8.2.4 Phosphatases......Page 337
8.2.5 Lysozyme (EC 3.2.1.17)......Page 340
8.2.8 Xanthine Oxidase (EC 1.2.3.2)......Page 341
8.2.10 Superoxide Dismutase (EC 1.15.1.1)......Page 343
8.2.12 Lactoperoxidase (EC 1.1 1.1.7)......Page 344
8.3.1 Introduction......Page 346
8.3.2 Proteinases......Page 349
8.3.4 Lipases......Page 351
8.3.6 Catalase......Page 352
8.3.7 Glucose Oxidase......Page 353
8.3.8 Superoxide Dismutase......Page 354
8.3.9 Exogeneous Enzymes in Food Analysis......Page 355
References......Page 358
9.1 Introduction......Page 360
9.2.1 Physiochemical Changes......Page 362
9.2.2 Chemical Changes......Page 364
9.3 Lactose......Page 365
9.3.2 Formation of Acids......Page 367
9.3.3 Maillard Browning......Page 369
9.6.1 Enzymes......Page 373
9.6.3 Denaturation of Whey Proteins......Page 376
9.6.4 Effect of Heat on Caseins......Page 381
9.7 Heat Stability of Milk......Page 382
9.7.1 Effect of Processing Operations on Heat Stability......Page 385
9.8 Effect of Heat Treatment on Rennet Coagulation of Milk......Page 386
9.9 Age Gelation of Sterilized Milk......Page 387
9.10 Heat-Induced Changes in Flavour of Milk......Page 389
References......Page 390
10.1 Introduction......Page 392
10.2.1 Preparation and Treatment of Cheesemilk......Page 393
10.2.2 Conversion of Milk to Cheese Curd......Page 395
10.2.3 Acidification......Page 407
10.2.4 Moulding and Shaping......Page 410
10.2.5 Salting......Page 411
10.2.6 Manufacturing Protocols for Some Cheese Varieties......Page 415
10.2.7 Cheese Ripening......Page 416
10.2.8 Cheese Flavour......Page 429
10.2.9 Accelerated Ripening of Cheese......Page 431
10.3 Acid-Coagulated Cheeses......Page 432
10.4 Processed Cheese Products......Page 434
10.4.1 Processing Protocol......Page 437
10.5 Cheese Analogues......Page 440
10.6 Cultured Milks......Page 441
References......Page 445
Appendices......Page 447
11. Physical Properties of Milk......Page 450
11.2 Density......Page 451
11.3 Redox Properties of Milk......Page 452
11.4 Colligative Properties of Milk......Page 456
11.5 Interfacial Tension......Page 460
11.6 Acid-Base Equilibria......Page 462
11.7.1 Newtonian Behaviour......Page 466
11.7.2 Non-Newtonian Behaviour......Page 467
11.7.3 Rheology of Milk Gels......Page 468
11.8 Electrical Conductivity......Page 469
11.9 Thermal Properties of Milk......Page 470
11.10 Interaction of Light With Milk and Dairy Products......Page 471
11.11 Colour of Milk and Milk Products......Page 472
References......Page 473
Index......Page 476
Back Page......Page 492