Cyanide in Water and Soil: Chemistry, Risk, and Management

Front cover......Page 1
Preface......Page 6
Editors......Page 8
Contributors......Page 10
Contents......Page 12
CONTENTS......Page 14
1.3 CYANIDE AND THE ORIGIN OF LIFE 1.3.1 ROLE HYDROGEN CYANIDE PRODUCTION AMINO ACIDS......Page 15
1.3.2 STANLEY MILLER’S EXPERIMENT......Page 16
1.4.2 HYDROGEN CYANIDE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE......Page 18
1.6 CYANIDE RELEASES TO WATER AND SOIL......Page 19
1.7 CYANIDE: CHEMISTRY, RISK, AND MANAGEMENT......Page 23
1.9 CYANIDE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY......Page 24
REFERENCES......Page 25
CONTENTS......Page 28
2.2.1 FREE CYANIDE......Page 30
2.2.3 CYANATE THIOCYANATE......Page 32
2.3 SOLID FORMS OF CYANIDE......Page 33
2.3.2 METAL–METAL CYANIDE SOLIDS......Page 34
2.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 35
REFERENCES......Page 36
CONTENTS......Page 38
3.1.1 CYANOGENESIS PLANTS......Page 39
3.1.2 ROLE OF CYANOGENESIS IN PLANTS AND ITS IMPACTS......Page 40
3.2.1 CYANOGENIC ALGAE......Page 45
3.2.3 CYANOGENIC FUNGI......Page 47
3.2.4 ROLE CYANOGENIC COMPOUNDS MICROORGANISMS......Page 48
3.3.2 BIOSYNTHESIS CYANIDE......Page 49
3.4 CYANIDE IN FOREST FIRES......Page 50
REFERENCES......Page 51
CONTENTS......Page 54
4.1.2 PRODUCTION SODIUM CYANIDE......Page 55
4.1.3 PRODUCTION FERROCYANIDES......Page 61
4.1.4 PRODUCTION ACRYLONITRILE......Page 62
4.2 INCIDENTAL INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION OF CYANIDE......Page 64
4.2.3 ALUMINUM PRODUCTION......Page 65
4.3 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 66
REFERENCES......Page 67
CONTENTS......Page 70
5.1.2 HCN FORMATION DISSOCIATION......Page 71
5.1.3 HCN VOLATILIZATION......Page 73
5.1.4 FREE CYANIDE ADSORPTION TO SOIL AND SEDIMENT......Page 74
5.1.5 FREE CYANIDE OXIDATION......Page 75
5.1.6 FREE CYANIDE HYDROLYSIS......Page 77
5.2.1 WEAK METAL–CYANIDE COMPLEXES......Page 78
5.2.2 STRONG METAL–CYANIDE COMPLEXES......Page 86
5.3 METAL–CYANIDES: SOLID PHASE COMPOUNDS......Page 92
5.3.3 OTHER METAL–METAL CYANIDE COMPLEX SOLIDS......Page 93
5.4 CYANATE......Page 95
5.5 THIOCYANATE......Page 97
5.6 ORGANOCYANIDES......Page 99
REFERENCES......Page 101
CONTENTS......Page 106
6.1 MICROBIAL DEGRADATION......Page 107
6.1.2 CONDITIONS REQUIRED BACTERIAL DEGRADATION CYANOGENIC COMPOUNDS......Page 108
6.1.3 PATHWAYS BACTERIAL DEGRADATION CYANOGENIC COMPOUNDS......Page 109
6.3.1 FUNGAL DEGRADATION FREE CYANIDE NITRILES......Page 114
6.3.2 FUNGAL DEGRADATION METAL–CYANIDE COMPLEXES......Page 115
6.3.3 FUNGAL DEGRADATION THIOCYANATE......Page 116
6.4.2 CONDITIONS REQUIRED BACTERIAL ASSIMILATION CYANOGENIC COMPOUNDS......Page 117
6.4.3 PATHWAYS BACTERIAL ASSIMILATION CYANOGENIC COMPOUNDS......Page 118
6.5 FUNGAL ASSIMILATION 6.5.1 FUNGI CAPABLE DEGRADING CYANOGENIC COMPOUNDS......Page 119
6.5.3 PATHWAYS FUNGAL ASSIMILATION CYANOGENIC COMPOUNDS......Page 120
6.6 BOTANICAL TRANSFORMATION PROCESSES......Page 121
6.6.1 CYANIDE-RESISTANT RESPIRATION......Page 122
6.6.2 PLANT PATHWAYS ASSIMILATION CYANOGENIC COMPOUNDS......Page 123
6.7 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF CYANIDE ASSIMILATION......Page 127
REFERENCES......Page 128
CONTENTS......Page 136
7.1 INTERFERENCES AND PRETREATMENTS......Page 140
7.2 TOTAL CYANIDE MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES......Page 141
7.2.1 APHA/AWWA/WEF (STANDARD METHODS), ASTM, USEPA, USGS METHODS......Page 142
7.2.2 ANALYTICAL FINISH TECHNIQUES......Page 144
7.3.1 WEAK ACID DISSOCIABLE (WAD) CYANIDE METHOD......Page 145
7.3.3 CYANIDE AMENABLE CHLORINATION......Page 146
7.4.1 ION EXCHANGE CHROMATOGRAPHY......Page 147
7.4.2 REVERSED-PHASE ION-PAIR PARTITION CHROMATOGRAPHY......Page 149
7.5.2 DIRECT COLORIMETRIC DEVELOPMENT......Page 150
7.5.3 GAS–LIQUID DIFFUSION......Page 151
7.6 THIOCYANATE AND CYANATE MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 7.6.1 THIOCYANATE MEASUREMENT PROCEDURE......Page 154
7.7 CYANOGEN HALIDE ANALYSIS......Page 155
7.8 ORGANOCYANIDE MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES......Page 156
7.9 COMPARATIVE METHOD PERFORMANCE......Page 157
7.11 MEASURING CYANIDES — A REGULATORY DILEMMA......Page 161
7.12 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 162
REFERENCES......Page 163
CONTENTS......Page 168
8.1 DIRECT ACID DISTILLATION......Page 169
8.2 ACID SOLUTION EXTRACTION......Page 170
8.4 ALKALINE SOLUTION EXTRACTION......Page 171
8.5 EFFECT OF EXTRACTION SOLUTION pH......Page 172
8.6 EFFECT OF LIQUID–SOLID RATIO......Page 174
8.7 EFFECT OF EXTRACTION TIME......Page 175
8.8.1 PLANT TISSUE ANALYSIS......Page 176
8.8.4 ANALYTICAL METHODS PLANT TISSUE......Page 177
8.10 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 178
REFERENCES......Page 179
CONTENTS......Page 184
9.1 SYNOPTIC REVIEW OF CYANIDE SPECIATION AND TOXICITY......Page 185
9.2 PRIMARY CYANIDE FATE-DETERMINING ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSES 9.2.1 PHOTOLYTIC REACTIONS INVOLVING COMPLEXED CYANIDES......Page 187
9.2.2 AIR–WATER EXCHANGE......Page 189
9.2.3 BIOLOGICAL FATE-DETERMINING PROCESSES CYANIDE......Page 191
9.3 PREDICTION AND ASSESSMENT OF EXPOSURE TO CYANIDE......Page 192
9.3.1 MODELING FRAMEWORK NATURAL AQUATIC SYSTEMS — MASS BALANCE APPROACH......Page 193
9.3.2 CASE STUDY: FATE CYANIDE SMALL STREAM ENVIRONMENT......Page 195
REFERENCES......Page 201
CONTENTS......Page 204
10.1.1 CYANIDE SOIL......Page 205
10.2 IMPACT OF SITE GEOCHEMISTRY ON SPECIATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF CYANIDE......Page 206
10.3.1 PHYSICOCHEMICAL FATE PROCESSES......Page 209
10.3.2 BIOLOGICAL FATE PROCESSES......Page 212
10.4 TRANSPORT OF CYANIDE IN SOIL AND GROUNDWATER AT CONTAMINATED SITES 10.4.1 CYANIDE MOBILITY......Page 213
10.4.2 CYANIDE MOBILITY GROUNDWATER......Page 215
REFERENCES......Page 218
CONTENTS......Page 222
11.1 WASTEWATER DISCHARGES TO COASTAL WATERS......Page 223
11.1.1 FATE AND TRANSPORT OF CYANIDE SPECIES IN MARINE WATERS......Page 224
11.1.2 AMBIENT WATER MONITORING FOR CYANIDE IN SAN FRANCISCO BAY......Page 227
11.1.3 LESSONS FROM FIELD OBSERVATIONS AT WASTEWATER DISCHARGE SITES......Page 231
11.2.1 QUANTITY FISH CAUGHT USING CYANIDE AND THE MAsS OF CYANIDE INTRODUCED INTO CORAL REEFS......Page 232
11.2.2 EFFECTS OF CYANIDE USE ON REEFS......Page 233
11.2.3 THE FUTURE......Page 234
REFERENCES......Page 235
CONTENTS......Page 238
12.1.2 ANTHROPOGENIC SOURCES......Page 239
12.2.1 CYANIDE COMPOUND DISSOCIATION......Page 240
12.2.5 CYANIDE PRECIPITATION......Page 241
12.3 WHY DOES CYANIDE NOT BUILD UP IN NATURE?......Page 242
12.3.2 ABIOTIC PROCESSES......Page 243
12.4 CYCLING OF ANTHROPOGENIC CYANIDE IN NATURE......Page 244
12.5 COMBINED NATURAL AND ANTHROPOGENIC CYANIDE CYCLE......Page 246
REFERENCES......Page 248
CONTENTS......Page 250
13.2 SITES OF ACTION 13.2.1 BRAIN......Page 251
13.2.2 HEART......Page 252
13.3.3 CHRONIC TOXICITY......Page 254
13.4 GENERATION AND METABOLISM OF CYANIDE IN BODY TISSUES......Page 255
13.5.4 OXIDATIVE STRESS......Page 256
13.5.6 NERVE CELL DEATH PATHWAYS......Page 257
13.6 CYANIDE ANTIDOTES......Page 258
Acknowledgement......Page 259
REFERENCES......Page 260
CONTENTS......Page 264
14.2 CYANIDE BIOAVAILABILITY......Page 265
14.2.1 EVIDENCE SUPPORTING TOXICITY OF FREE VERSUS COMPLEX CYANIDES......Page 266
14.3 TOXICITY TO FRESHWATER BIOTA......Page 267
14.3.1 ACUTE LETHALITY FRESHWATER FISH......Page 283
14.3.3 ACUTE SUBLETHAL EFFECTS FRESHWATER FISH......Page 284
14.3.4 CHRONIC TOXICITY FRESHWATER FISH......Page 285
14.4 TOXICITY TO MARINE BIOTA......Page 286
14.4.3 CHRONIC TOXICITY MARINE FISH INVERTEBRATES......Page 287
14.5 REGULATORY CRITERIA FOR PROTECTION OF AQUATIC LIFE......Page 288
14.5.1 BASIS CURRENT AWQC......Page 289
14.5.2 COMPARISON CURRENT AWQC UPDATED TOXICITY LITERATURE......Page 290
14.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 291
REFERENCES......Page 292
CONTENTS......Page 298
15.1 DISTRIBUTION OF CYANIDE IN THE ENVIRONMENT......Page 299
15.4 LITERATURE REVIEW METHODS AND SCOPE......Page 300
15.4.2 DATA NORMALIZATION......Page 301
15.5 DATA ANALYSIS......Page 302
15.6.1 ROUTE EXPOSURE— MAMMALS......Page 303
15.6.2 ROUTE EXPOSURE — BIRDS......Page 316
15.6.4 SIMPLE CYANIDE COMPLEX CYANIDE COMPOUNDS......Page 317
15.8 TOXICITY THRESHOLDS FOR CYANIDE......Page 318
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 319
REFERENCES......Page 320
CONTENTS......Page 322
16.1.1 CONCENTRATIONS OF CYANIDE IN SOIL AT FORMER MGP SITES......Page 323
16.1.2 CONCENTRATIONS PF CYANIDE COMPOUNDS IN GROUNDWATER AT FORMER MGP SITES......Page 324
16.1.3 ESTIMATED CONCENTRATIONS CYANIDE COMPOUNDS IN AR AT FORMER MGP SITES......Page 325
16.2 EXPOSURE PATHWAYS......Page 326
16.2.1 FREE CYANIDE......Page 327
16.3 TOXICITY EVALUATION......Page 328
16.3.1 FREE CYANIDE......Page 329
16.3.2 FERRIC FERROCYANIDE SOLID......Page 331
16.3.3 DISSOLVED FERROCYANIDE......Page 332
16.4 RISK CHARACTERIZATION......Page 333
16.4.1 EXPOSURE ALGORITHMS ASSUMPTIONS......Page 334
16.4.2 CASE STUDY RESULTS......Page 336
16.4.3 REGULATORY CRITERIA FOR CYANIDE COMPOUNDS IN ENVIRONMENTAL MEDIA......Page 337
16.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 339
REFERENCES......Page 340
CONTENTS......Page 344
17.1.1 CONCEPTUAL MODELS EXPOSURE......Page 345
17.1.2 ASSESSMENT ENDPOINTS......Page 349
17.2.1 METABOLIC BASIS CYANIDE REACTIVITY......Page 350
17.2.2 LETHALITY......Page 351
17.2.4 COMPARATIVE SUBLETHAL TOXICITY......Page 352
17.2.5 SPECIES SENSITIVITY DISTRIBUTIONS......Page 353
17.3 ECOLOGICAL EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT 17.3.1 AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS......Page 356
17.3.2 TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENTS......Page 357
17.4 RISK CHARACTERIZATION......Page 358
REFERENCES......Page 359
CONTENTS......Page 364
18.1 U.S. REGULATIONS, GUIDELINES AND CRITERIA FOR CYANIDE IN WATER......Page 365
18.1.1 DRINKING WATER......Page 368
18.1.2 SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER......Page 372
18.1.3 FEDERAL WASTEWATER DISCHARGE STANDARDS......Page 373
18.1.4 GROUNDWATER (RCRA CERCLA)......Page 375
18.2 U.S. REGULATIONS, GUIDELINES, AND CRITERIA FOR SOIL, SEDIMENT, AND PROCESS RESIDUALS 18.2.1 SOIL PROCESS RESIDUALS......Page 385
18.2.2 SEDIMENT......Page 386
18.3 INTERNATIONAL REGULATORY STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES FOR CYANIDE IN WATER AND SOIL......Page 388
18.3.1 WATER......Page 389
18.3.3 SEDIMENT......Page 391
18.4.1 LACK CONSISTENCY: ANALYTICAL METHODS REGULATIONS......Page 393
18.4.3 CYANIDE TOXICOLOGICAL DATABASE......Page 394
18.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 395
REFERENCES......Page 396
19.1 TECHNOLOGY SELECTION......Page 400
19.1.3 WASTE MATRIX......Page 402
19.2 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 403
REFERENCES......Page 404
CONTENTS......Page 406
20.1 ALKALINE CHLORINATION TECHNOLOGIES 20.1.1 PROCESS DESCRIPTION IMPLEMENTATION......Page 407
20.1.2 ACHIEVABLE TREATMENT LEVELS......Page 408
20.1.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS......Page 409
20.2 OXIDATION TECHNOLOGIES WITH OZONE AND HYDROGEN PEROXIDE 20.2.1 PROCESS DESCRIPTION IMPLEMENTATION......Page 411
20.2.4 COST TECHNOLOGY......Page 416
20.3.2 ACHIEVABLE TREATMENT LEVELS......Page 417
20.3.5 TECHNOLOGY STATUS......Page 418
20.4 INCO’S AIR/SO2 PROCESS 20.4.1 PROCESS DESCRIPTION......Page 419
20.4.2 ACHIEVABLE TREATMENT LEVELS......Page 420
20.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 421
REFERENCES......Page 424
21.1 ADSORPTION TECHNOLOGIES......Page 426
21.1.1 ACTIVATED CARBON......Page 427
21.1.2 SYNTHETIC ION EXCHANGE RESIN......Page 431
21.1.3 ACTIVATED ALUMINA......Page 434
21.2.1 IRON–CYANIDE PRECIPITATION REACTIONS......Page 436
21.2.2 IRON–CYANIDE PRECIPITATION PROCESSES......Page 437
21.2.3 OPERATION REGULATORY ISSUES......Page 441
21.3.1 COUNTER-CURRENT AIR STRIPPING......Page 442
21.3.2 RECOVERY AND REUSE OF CYANIDE IN HYDROMETALLURGICAL GOLD MINING......Page 443
21.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 447
REFERENCES......Page 448
CONTENTS......Page 452
22.1 HIGH TEMPERATURE ALKALINE HYDROLYSIS 22.1.1 PROCESS DESCRIPTION IMPLEMENTATION......Page 453
22.1.3 TECHNOLOGY SELECTION FACTORS DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS......Page 455
22.2 HIGH TEMPERATURE ALKALINE CHLORINATION 22.2.1 PROCESS DESCRIPTION IMPLEMENTATION......Page 456
22.2.4 COST TECHNOLOGY......Page 457
22.3 INCINERATION/THERMAL TREATMENT 22.3.1 PROCESS DESCRIPTION IMPLEMENTATION......Page 458
22.3.5 TECHNOLOGY STATUS......Page 459
22.4.3 TECHNOLOGY SELECTION FACTORS DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS......Page 460
22.5 POLYSULFIDE PROCESS 22.5.1 PROCESS DESCRIPTION IMPLEMENTATION......Page 461
22.5.3 TECHNOLOGY SELECTION FACTORS DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS......Page 462
22.6 WET AIR OXIDATION 22.6.1 PROCESS DESCRIPTION IMPLEMENTATION......Page 463
22.6.3 TECHNOLOGY SELECTION FACTORS DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS......Page 464
22.7 OTHER THERMAL TECHNOLOGIES 22.7.1 THERMAL DESORPTION......Page 465
22.8 THERMAL TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW......Page 466
REFERENCES......Page 469
CONTENTS......Page 472
23.1.1 INHERENT BIODEGRADABILITY......Page 473
23.1.2 PRESENCE CAPABLE MICROORGANISMS......Page 474
23.1.4 ABSENCE INHIBITORY COMPOUNDS......Page 475
23.1.7 COMPETITIVE PROCESSES BIOTREATMENT SYSTEMS......Page 476
23.2.1 SUSPENDED GROWTH......Page 477
23.2.2 ATTACHED GROWTH......Page 481
23.2.3 NOVEL PROCESSES......Page 483
23.3 FULL-SCALE APPLICATIONS OF BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT FOR CYANIDE IN GOLD MINING......Page 484
23.4 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF SOLID WASTES CONTAINING CYANIDE......Page 485
REFERENCES......Page 487
CONTENTS......Page 492
24.1 PHYTOREMEDIATION: AN EMERGING BIOTECHNOLOGY 24.1.1 PHYTOREMEDIATION BIOTECHNOLOGIES......Page 493
24.2 CYANIDE CONTAMINATION IN THE ENVIRONMENT......Page 494
24.3 FEASIBILITY OF CYANIDE PHYTOREMEDIATION 24.3.1 CYANIDE METABOLISM......Page 495
24.3.2 CYANIDE PHYTOREMEDIATION STUDIES......Page 496
24.4 MODELING CYANIDE UPTAKE AND FATE IN PLANTS......Page 499
24.4.1 MODEL STRUCTURE......Page 501
24.4.2 MODEL CALIBRATION SIMULATIONS......Page 502
24.5.1 SELECTION PLANT SPECIES......Page 503
24.6 POSSIBLE SCENARIOS FOR CYANIDE PHYTOREMEDIATION......Page 505
24.6.1 ENGINEERING IMPLICATIONS......Page 506
24.6.2 FIELD APPLICATIONS......Page 507
24.7.1 CYANIDE BIOACCUMULATION PLANT TISSUE......Page 508
24.7.2 CYANIDE VOLATILIZATION PLANT TISSUE......Page 509
24.8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 510
REFERENCES......Page 511
CONTENTS......Page 514
25.1 SOURCES OF CYANIDE IN MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT INFLUENT......Page 515
25.2 FATE OF CYANIDE IN MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT......Page 517
25.3.1 IN-PROCESS CYANIDE GENERATION......Page 520
25.3.2 CYANIDE SCRUBBER WATERS ON-SITE BIOSOLIDS INCINERATION......Page 522
25.4 MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES FOR LOW-LEVEL CYANIDE IN DISCHARGES FROM POTWS......Page 523
25.4.2 REQUEST SITE-SPECIFIC DISCHARGE PERMIT......Page 524
25.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 525
REFERENCES......Page 526
CONTENTS......Page 530
26.1.2 REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS......Page 531
26.1.3 WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION......Page 533
26.1.4 IN-PLANT CONTROLS......Page 534
26.1.5 TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES......Page 535
26.2.1 HYDROMETALLURGICAL GOLD MINING......Page 536
26.2.2 ELECTROPLATING METAL FINISHING......Page 548
26.2.3 BLAST FURNACE REDUCTION METAL ORES......Page 554
26.2.4 COAL COKING......Page 568
26.2.5 PETROLEUM REFINING......Page 576
26.3 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 579
REFERENCES......Page 580
CONTENTS......Page 584
27.1.1 ESTABLISH BASIS AND ASSESSMENT METHODS FOR COMPLIANCE......Page 585
27.1.2 CONCENTRATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF CYANIDE SPECIES IN IMPACTED GROUNDWATER......Page 586
27.1.3 MANAGEMENT DECISION STRATEGY......Page 587
27.2 MANAGEMENT OF CYANIDE-IMPACTED SOIL AND RESIDUALS......Page 588
27.2.1 ESTABLISH BASIS AND ASSESSMENT METHODS FOR COMPLIANCE......Page 589
27.2.3 MANAGEMENT STRATEGY......Page 591
27.3 CASE STUDIES 27.3.1 MANUFACTURED GAS PLANT SITE CLOSURE......Page 592
27.3.2 SPENT HEAP LEACH PAD CLOSURE......Page 594
27.3.3 SPENT POTLINING LEACHATE MANAGEMENT......Page 595
27.3.4 ELECTROPLATING SITE REMEDIATION......Page 597
REFERENCES......Page 599
Index......Page 604
Back cover......Page 616