Current Trends and Concerns in Infectious Diseases

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
About the Authors
Chapter 1: Prevention of HIV Infection
	1.1 Introduction and Background
	1.2 General Non-pharmacological Measures
	1.3 Prevention of Perinatal HIV Transmission
		1.3.1 Breast-Feeding and HIV Transmission
	1.4 Postexposure Prophylaxis for Percutaneous Exposure
		1.4.1 Nonhuman Primate Studies
		1.4.2 Postexposure Prophylaxis After Percutaneous or Occupational Exposures
	1.5 Sexual Transmission of HIV and Nonoccupational Needle Exposure
		1.5.1 Biology of Sexual HIV Transmission
	1.6 Early ART for HIV Infection as Prevention
	1.7 Postexposure Prophylaxis After Sexual Exposure
	1.8 Pre-exposure Prevention of HIV
		1.8.1 Topical Microbicides for PrEP
		1.8.2 Oral PrEP in MSM
		1.8.3 Oral PrEP in Heterosexuals and Drug Abusers
	1.9 Prospects of Future Effective HIV Vaccine
	1.10 Viewpoint and Future Directions
	1.11 Concerns
	References
Chapter 2: Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome and Paradoxical Reaction
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Paradoxical Reaction Syndrome [PRS]
	2.3 Immunosuppressive-IRIS
		2.3.1 Transplant-IRIS
		2.3.2 Biologic Therapy-IRIS
	2.4 HIV-IRIS
		2.4.1 Pathogenesis of HIV-IRIS
	2.5 Clinical Types of HIV-IRIS
		2.5.1 HIV TB-IRIS
		2.5.2 HIV-Associated Cryptococcal-IRIS
		2.5.3 HIV CNS-IRIS Without Opportunistic Infection
		2.5.4 HIV CMV-IRIS
		2.5.5 Management of HIV-IRIS
	2.6 Discussion and Future Directions
	References
Chapter 3: Issues in Community-Acquired Pneumonia
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Airway Defenses and Pathogenesis
	3.3 Microbial Etiology of Community-Acquired Pneumonia
		3.3.1 Comments on Microbial Etiology
	3.4 Diagnosis of CAP
	3.5 Markers of Prognosis of CAP
		3.5.1 Comments on Prediction Scores
	3.6 Treatment of CAP
		3.6.1 Comments on Treatment of CAP
	3.7 Adjunctive Therapy for Severe CAP
		3.7.1 Comments on Adjunctive Therapy for CAP
	3.8 Prevention of CAP
		3.8.1 Comments on Prevention of CAP
	References
Chapter 4: Helicobacter pylori Infection: When Should It Be Treated?
	4.1 Background
	4.2 Transmission
	4.3 Pathogenesis
	4.4 Clinical Disease and Associated Mechanisms
	4.5 Treatment of Clinical Diseases Associated with H. pylori Infection
		4.5.1 Peptic Ulcer Disease
		4.5.2 Dyspepsia
		4.5.3 MALT Lymphoma
		4.5.4 Gastric Cancer
		4.5.5 Miscellaneous Conditions
	4.6 Treatment Regimens for H. pylori Infection
	4.7 Prevention of H. pylori Infection
	4.8 Comments and Future Directions
	References
Chapter 5: Major Advances in Hepatitis C Treatment but Not Hepatitis B
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Background and Natural History
		5.2.1 Hepatitis B Virus
		5.2.2 Hepatitis C Virus
	5.3 Biology and Virology
		5.3.1 Impact of Genomic and Structural Differences on Antiviral Therapy
		5.3.2 Host–Viral Interactions
	5.4 Therapy for Chronic Hepatitis B Infection
	5.5 Therapy for Chronic Hepatitis C Infection
		5.5.1 Choosing the Appropriate DAA Combination
		5.5.2 Management of Special Populations with HCV Infection
		5.5.3 Controversy Regarding Efficacy of Antiviral Therapy of HCV
		5.5.4 Concerns of Cost of Treating HCV
	5.6 Future Treatment of Chronic Hepatitis B
	5.7 Issues in Prevention of HBV
	References
Chapter 6: Infectious Complications of Biological Agents
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Standard DMARDs Immune Effects and Infections
		6.2.1 Corticosteroids
		6.2.2 Methotrexate
		6.2.3 Azathioprine
		6.2.4 Cyclosporine and Cyclophosphamide
	6.3 Cytokines and Immune System
	6.4 Biological Response Modifiers [BRM]
		6.4.1 Anticytokines
		6.4.2 TNF Biologic Inhibitors
		6.4.3 IL-1 Inhibitors
		6.4.4 IL-6 Inhibitor
		6.4.5 IL-17 Inhibitor
		6.4.6 IL-12/23 Blockade
		6.4.7 Costimulation Blockade or T Cell Activation Inhibitor
		6.4.8 B Cell Inhibition and Depletion
		6.4.9 Kinase Inhibitors
	6.5 Infections Associated with Biologic Response Modifiers
		6.5.1 Infections in Pediatric Patients on Biologic Agents
		6.5.2 Infections in Adult Rheumatic Diseases Associated with TNF-Inhibitors
		6.5.3 Opportunistic and Specific Infections with Biologics in Rheumatoid Arthritis
		6.5.4 Risk of Infections from Biological Agents in Non-rheumatic Conditions
		6.5.5 Overview of the Infectious Risk of the Different Classes of Biologics
			6.5.5.1 B Cell Inhibitors
			6.5.5.2 IL-1 Inhibitors
			6.5.5.3 IL-5 Inhibitors
			6.5.5.4 IL-6 Inhibitors
			6.5.5.5 IL 12/23 Inhibitor
			6.5.5.6 IL-17A Inhibitors
			6.5.5.7 Ig E Inhibitor
			6.5.5.8 C5 Inhibitor
			6.5.5.9 CTLA-4 Inhibitors
			6.5.5.10 PD-1/PD-L1 Inhibitors
			6.5.5.11 Lymphocyte Function-Associated Antigen 3 Inhibitor
			6.5.5.12 Adhesion Molecules Inhibitors
			6.5.5.13 CD-19 and CD-20 Inhibitors
			6.5.5.14 CD52 Inhibitor
			6.5.5.15 S1P Receptor Modulators
			6.5.5.16 Ubiquitin Proteasome Pathway Inhibitors
	6.6 Novel Non-biological Agents
	6.7 Prevention of Infections with Use of Biological Agents
	6.8 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 7: Climate Change: Impact on Health and Infectious Diseases Globally
	7.1 The Science of Climate Change
	7.2 Impact of Climate Change
	7.3 Health Effects of Global Warming
	7.4 Climate-Sensitive Diseases
	7.5 Climate-Sensitive Infectious Diseases
		7.5.1 Mosquito-Borne Infections
			7.5.1.1 West Nile Virus
			7.5.1.2 Dengue Virus and Other Mimics
			7.5.1.3 Malaria
			7.5.1.4 Lymphatic Filariasis
		7.5.2 Tick-borne Diseases
		7.5.3 Sandfly-Borne Diseases
		7.5.4 Chagas Disease
	7.6 Nonvector-Borne Diseases
		7.6.1 Snails-Related Diseases
		7.6.2 Water-Borne Diseases
		7.6.3 Miscellaneous Conditions
	7.7 Prevention and Mitigation of the Effects of Climate Change
	7.8 Economic Impact
	7.9 Concern
	References
Chapter 8: Blood Transfusion-Associated Infections in the Twenty-First Century: New Challenges
	8.1 History of Blood Transfusion
	8.2 Adverse Effects
	8.3 Infections Associated with Blood Products
	8.4 Transfusion-Transmitted Infectious Diseases
	8.5 Recent Trends in Transmittable Agents in Blood Donors
		8.5.1 China
		8.5.2 Africa
		8.5.3 Middle East
		8.5.4 Southeast Asia
		8.5.5 South America
		8.5.6 Developed Countries
	8.6 Risk of Transfusion-Transmitted Infections
	8.7 Risk of Blood Transmission of Specific Viruses
		8.7.1 Cytomegalovirus
		8.7.2 Occult Hepatitis B
		8.7.3 Hepatitis E
		8.7.4 Arboviruses
		8.7.5 Other Viruses
	8.8 Transfusion Transmission of Parasites
		8.8.1 Malaria
		8.8.2 Chagas Disease
		8.8.3 Babesiosis
	8.9 Bacterial Infection from Blood Transfusion
	8.10 Summary and Future Directions
	References
Chapter 9: Mass Drug Treatment of Tropical Diseases: Is It Really Progress?
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Intensified Diagnosis and Treatment
	9.3 Mass Drug Treatment/Administration Background
	9.4 Soil Transmitted Helminthiasis and Mass Drug Treatment
		9.4.1 Concerns of Mass Chemotherapy for Helminthiasis
	9.5 Mass Drug Treatment of Lymphatic Filariasis
		9.5.1 Viewpoint of Elimination of Filariasis
	9.6 Mass Drug Treatment of Onchocerciasis
		9.6.1 Concerns with MDA and Control of Onchocerciasis
		9.6.2 Future Directions for Elimination of Onchocerciasis
	9.7 Mass Drug Treatment of Schistosomiasis
		9.7.1 Viewpoints and Concerns with Elimination of Schistosomiasis
	9.8 Mass Drug Treatment of Trachoma
		9.8.1 Concerns with Mass Drug Treatment of Trachoma
		9.8.2 Viewpoint on MDA for Trachoma
	9.9 Mass Drug Treatment of Malaria
		9.9.1 Concerns of MDA for Malaria
	9.10 Unintended Benefits of Mass Preventive Chemotherapy
	9.11 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 10: Issues in Therapeutics of Some Bacterial Infections: Vancomycin Use, Osteomyelitis, Endocarditis, and Staphylococcus aureus Bacteremia
	10.1 Vancomycin Therapeutics
		10.1.1 Introduction
		10.1.2 Experience with Early Use of Vancomycin
		10.1.3 Relationship of MIC and Efficacy of Vancomycin
		10.1.4 Pharmacodynamic and Dosing and Vancomycin
		10.1.5 Clinical Studies on MRSA Infection with Vancomycin Pharmacodynamic Targets
		10.1.6 Nephrotoxicity of Vancomycin
		10.1.7 Conclusion on Vancomycin and Future Directions
	10.2 The Need for Intravenous Antibiotics in Osteomyelitis
		10.2.1 Background on Osteomyelitis
		10.2.2 Pediatric Studies of Acute Osteomyelitis
		10.2.3 Adult Osteomyelitis
			10.2.3.1 Background
			10.2.3.2 Treatment of Adult Osteomyelitis
			10.2.3.3 Studies on Oral Antibiotics in Adult Osteomyelitis
		10.2.4 Selection of Oral Antibiotics for Treatment of Osteomyelitis
		10.2.5 Conclusion on Oral Antibiotics in Bone and Prosthetic Joints Infection
	10.3 Oral Antibiotics for Bacterial Endocarditis
		10.3.1 Background on Infective Endocarditis
		10.3.2 Treatment of Infective Endocarditis
		10.3.3 Recent Randomized Trial of Partial Oral Therapy in Endocarditis
		10.3.4 Conclusion on Oral Antibiotics in Infective Endocarditis
	10.4 Issues in the Treatment of S. aureus Bacteremia
		10.4.1 Background of S. aureus Bacteremia
		10.4.2 Concerns and Controversies in the Management S. aureus Bacteremia
		10.4.3 Viewpoint on S. aureus Bacteremia Management
	References
Chapter 11: Issues and Concerns in the Management of Systemic Candidiasis
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Epidemiology
	11.3 Pathogenesis of Invasive Candidiasis
	11.4 Genetic Predisposition of Invasive Candidiasis
	11.5 Microbiological Aspects
	11.6 Clinical Aspects of Invasive Candidiasis
	11.7 Diagnosis of Invasive Candidiasis
	11.8 Resistant Patterns of Candida Species in Invasive Disease
	11.9 Management of Invasive Candidiasis
		11.9.1 Conclusion and Comments
	References
Chapter 12: Emerging and Difficult to Treat Nontuberculous Mycobacteria Infections
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Microbiological Aspects
	12.3 Epidemiology of Nontuberculous Mycobacteria
	12.4 Pathogenesis of Nontuberculous Mycobacteria Infection
	12.5 Specific Mycobacterial Infections
		12.5.1 M. avium Complex Infections
		12.5.2 Clinical Disease Associated with MAC
		12.5.3 Susceptibility Testing and Resistance of MAC
		12.5.4 Treatment of Pulmonary MAC
			12.5.4.1 Issues and Controversies of Pulmonary MAC Treatment
		12.5.5 Treatment of Disseminated MAC
		12.5.6 Treatment of Localized Non-pulmonary MAC
	12.6 Mycobacterium Abscessus Infection
		12.6.1 In Vitro Susceptibility of M. abscessus
		12.6.2 Macrolide Mutations Among M. abscessus Complex
		12.6.3 Clinical Aspects of M. abscessus Infection
		12.6.4 Recent Clinical Studies on Treatment of M. abscessus Infection
	12.7 Mycobacterium Chimaera Infection
		12.7.1 Clinical Aspects of Invasive M. chimaera Infections
		12.7.2 Diagnosis of M. chimaera Infection
		12.7.3 Management of M. chimaera Infection
		12.7.4 Prevention of M. chimaera Infection
	References
Index