Cultures and organizations : software of the mind : intercultural cooperation and its importance for survival

Contents......Page 4
Preface......Page 12
Part I: The Concept of Culture......Page 16
1 The Rules of the Social Game......Page 18
Culture as Mental Programming......Page 19
Symbols, Heroes, Rituals, and Values......Page 22
Culture Reproduces Itself......Page 25
No Group Can Escape Culture......Page 26
Values and the Moral Circle......Page 27
Boundaries of the Moral Circle: Religion and Philosophy......Page 28
Beyond Race and Family......Page 29
We and They......Page 31
Layers of Culture......Page 32
Culture Change: Changing Practices, Stable Values......Page 33
National Culture Differences......Page 35
National Identities, Values, and Institutions......Page 37
What About National Management Cultures?......Page 39
Cultural Relativism......Page 40
Culture as a Phoenix......Page 41
2 Studying Cultural Differences......Page 42
Measuring Values......Page 43
Dimensions of National Cultures......Page 44
Using Correlations......Page 47
Replications of the IBM Research......Page 49
Extending the IBM Model: The Chinese Value Survey......Page 52
Validation of the Country Culture Scores Against Other Measures......Page 53
Culture Scores and Personality Scores: No Reason for Stereotyping......Page 54
Other Classifications of National Cultures......Page 55
A Second Expansion of the Hofstede Dimensional Model: Minkov’s Exploration of the World Values Survey......Page 59
Cultural Differences According to Region, Ethnicity, Religion, Gender, Generation, and Class......Page 60
Reading Mental Programs: Suggestions for Researchers......Page 62
Part II: Dimensions of National Cultures......Page 66
3 More Equal than Others......Page 68
Inequality in Society......Page 69
Measuring the Degree of Inequality in Society: The Power Distance Index......Page 70
Power Distance Defined......Page 75
Power Distance in Replication Studies......Page 77
Power Distance Differences Within Countries: Social Class, Education Level, and Occupation......Page 79
Measures Associated with Power Distance: The Structure in This and Following Chapters......Page 81
Power Distance Difference Among Countries: Roots in the Family......Page 82
Power Distance at School......Page 84
Power Distance and Health Care......Page 86
Power Distance in the Workplace......Page 88
Power Distance and the State......Page 90
Power Distance and Ideas......Page 94
Origins of Power Distance Differences......Page 97
The Future of Power Distance Differences......Page 101
4 I, We, and They......Page 104
The Individual and the Collective in Society......Page 105
Measuring the Degree of Individualism in Society......Page 107
Individualism and Collectivism in the World Values Survey: Universalism Versus Exclusionism......Page 109
Individualism and Collectivism in Other Cross-National Studies......Page 114
Collectivism Versus Power Distance......Page 117
Individualism and Collectivism According to Occupation......Page 120
Individualism and Collectivism in the Family......Page 121
Language, Personality, and Behavior in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures......Page 127
Individualism and Collectivism at School......Page 132
Individualism and Collectivism in the Workplace......Page 134
Individualism, Collectivism, and the Internet......Page 138
Individualism, Collectivism, and the State......Page 140
Individualism, Collectivism, and Ideas......Page 142
Origins of Individualism-Collectivism Differences......Page 146
The Future of Individualism and Collectivism......Page 148
5 He, She, and (S)he......Page 150
Assertiveness Versus Modesty......Page 151
Genders and Gender Roles......Page 152
Masculinity-Femininity as a Dimension of Societal Culture......Page 153
Masculinity and Femininity in Other Cross-National Studies......Page 159
Are Masculinity and Femininity One or Two Dimensions?......Page 161
Country Masculinity Scores by Gender and Gender Scores by Age......Page 163
Masculinity and Femininity According to Occupation......Page 165
Masculinity and Femininity in the Family......Page 166
Masculinity and Femininity in Gender Roles and Sex......Page 169
Masculinity and Femininity in Education......Page 173
Masculinity and Femininity in Shopping......Page 178
Masculinity and Femininity in the Workplace......Page 179
Masculinity, Femininity, and the State......Page 185
Masculinity, Femininity, and Religion......Page 190
Origins of Masculinity-Femininity Differences......Page 195
The Future of Differences in Masculinity and Femininity......Page 199
6 What Is Different Is Dangerous......Page 202
The Avoidance of Uncertainty......Page 203
Measuring the (In)tolerance of Ambiguity in Society: The Uncertainty-Avoidance Index......Page 205
Uncertainty Avoidance and Anxiety......Page 210
Uncertainty Avoidance Is Not the Same as Risk Avoidance......Page 212
Uncertainty Avoidance in Replication Studies: Project GLOBE......Page 213
Uncertainty Avoidance According to Occupation, Gender, and Age......Page 214
Uncertainty Avoidance in the Family......Page 215
Uncertainty Avoidance, Health, and (Un)happiness......Page 217
Uncertainty Avoidance at School......Page 220
Uncertainty Avoidance in Shopping......Page 221
Uncertainty Avoidance in the Workplace......Page 223
Uncertainty Avoidance, Masculinity, and Motivation......Page 228
Uncertainty Avoidance, the Citizen, and the State......Page 231
Uncertainty Avoidance and Corruption......Page 236
Uncertainty Avoidance, Xenophobia, and Nationalism......Page 239
Uncertainty Avoidance, Religion, and Ideas......Page 241
Origins of Uncertainty-Avoidance Differences......Page 247
The Future of Uncertainty-Avoidance Differences......Page 248
7 Yesterday, Now, or Later?......Page 250
National Values and the Teachings of Confucius......Page 251
Implications of LTO-CVS Differences for Family Life......Page 255
Implications of LTO-CVS Differences for Business......Page 258
Implications of LTO-CVS Differences for Ways of Thinking......Page 261
Long-Term Orientation Scores Based on World Values Survey Data......Page 267
Long-Term Orientation and the GLOBE Dimensions......Page 274
Long- and Short-Term Orientation, Family Relations, and School Results......Page 275
Long- and Short-Term Orientation and Economic Growth......Page 277
Economic Growth and Politics......Page 282
Fundamentalisms as Short-Term Orientation......Page 284
Short-Term Orientation in Africa......Page 286
The Future of Long- and Short-Term Orientation......Page 289
8 Light or Dark?......Page 292
The Nature of Subjective Well-Being......Page 293
Subjective Well-Being and the World Values Survey......Page 294
Indulgence Versus Restraint as a Societal Dimension......Page 295
Indulgence Versus Restraint and Subjective Well-Being in Other Cross-National Studies......Page 303
Indulgence Versus Restraint, Subjective Health, Optimism, and Birthrates......Page 304
Indulgence Versus Restraint, Importance of Friends, and Consumer Attitudes......Page 305
Indulgence Versus Restraint and Sexual Relationships......Page 308
Indulgence Versus Restraint in the Workplace......Page 309
Indulgence Versus Restraint and the State......Page 310
Origins of Societal Differences in Indulgence Versus Restraint......Page 311
Part III: Cultures in Organizations......Page 314
9 Pyramids, Machines, Markets, and Families: Organizing Across Nations......Page 316
Implicit Models of Organizations......Page 317
Management Professors Are Human......Page 322
Culture and Organizational Structure: Elaborating on Mintzberg......Page 327
Planning, Control, and Accounting......Page 330
Corporate Governance and Business Goals......Page 335
Motivation Theories and Practices......Page 342
Leadership, Decision Making, and Empowerment......Page 346
Performance Appraisal and Management by Objectives......Page 349
Management Training and Organization Development......Page 351
Conclusion: Nationality Defines Organizational Rationality......Page 352
10 The Elephant and the Stork: Organizational Cultures......Page 356
The Organizational Culture Craze......Page 358
Differences Between Organizational and National Cultures: The IRIC Project......Page 361
Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches in the IRIC Project......Page 364
Results of the In-Depth Interviews: The SAS Case......Page 366
Results of the Survey: Six Dimensions of Organizational Cultures......Page 368
The Scope for Competitive Advantages in Cultural Matters......Page 373
Organizational Culture and Other Organizational Characteristics......Page 375
Organizational Subcultures......Page 379
Individual Perceptions of Organizational Cultures......Page 381
Occupational Cultures......Page 383
Conclusions from the IRIC Research Project: Dimensions Versus Gestalts......Page 385
Managing (with) Organizational Culture......Page 386
Part IV: Implications......Page 394
11 Intercultural Encounters......Page 396
Intended Versus Unintended Intercultural Conflict......Page 397
Culture Shock and Acculturation......Page 399
Group Encounters: Auto- and Heterostereotypes......Page 402
Language and Humor......Page 403
The Influence of Communication Technologies......Page 406
Intercultural Encounters in Tourism......Page 407
Intercultural Encounters in Schools......Page 408
Minorities, Migrants, and Refugees......Page 410
Intercultural Negotiations......Page 414
Multinational Business Organizations......Page 417
Coordinating Multinationals: Structure Should Follow Culture......Page 421
Expanding Multinationals: International Mergers and Other Ventures......Page 422
International Marketing, Advertising, and Consumer Behavior......Page 424
International Politics and International Organizations......Page 427
Economic Development, Nondevelopment, and Development Cooperation......Page 431
Learning Intercultural Communication......Page 434
Educating for Intercultural Understanding: Suggestions for Parents......Page 438
Spreading Multicultural Understanding: The Role of the Media......Page 440
Global Challenges Call for Intercultural Cooperation......Page 441
12 The Evolution of Cultures......Page 446
A Time-Machine Journey Through History......Page 448
Five Million to One Million Years Ago: Lonely Planet......Page 449
One Million to Forty Thousand Years Ago: Ice and Fire......Page 451
Forty Thousand to Ten Thousand Years Ago: Creative Spark, Extermination......Page 453
Twelve Thousand to Seven Thousand Five Hundred Years Ago: Villages and Agriculture......Page 457
Seven Thousand Five Hundred Years Ago Until Now: Large-Scale Civilizations......Page 462
Sources of Cultural Diversity and Change......Page 468
The End of History? No!......Page 470
The Essence of Evolution......Page 471
Evolution: More than Genes......Page 474
Evolution Beyond Selflshness: Groups over Individuals......Page 479
Individuals and Institutions in the Stream of Life......Page 481
Evolution at Work Today......Page 483
The Future of Culture......Page 488
Notes......Page 494
Glossary......Page 530
Bibliography......Page 540
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W......Page 563
B......Page 564
D......Page 565
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N......Page 569
P......Page 570
S......Page 571
U......Page 572
Z......Page 573