Crucifixion in Antiquity: An Inquiry into the Background and Significance of the New Testament Terminology of Crucifixion

Preface ......................................................................................................... VII
Contents ...................................................................................................... XI
Abbreviations ......................................................................................... XXI
1 Ancient Sources .................................................................................. XXI
2 Papyri and Non-Literary Sources .................................................XXVI
3 Early Jewish Literature ................................................................. XXVII
4 Modern Works .............................................................................XXVIII
5 General ............................................................................................. XXXI
6 Signs ................................................................................................XXXII
Chapter One – Introduction ................................................................... 1
1 The Purpose of the Study .............................................................................. 1
2 The Scholarly Discussion .............................................................................. 2
2.1 Predecessors ........................................................................................... 2
2.2 Intermediate Studies ........................................................................... 11
2.3 Main Contributors .............................................................................. 14
2.4 Recent Studies ..................................................................................... 22
3 Basic Problems and Method ....................................................................... 24
3.1 The Terminology ................................................................................ 25
3.2 The Definition ..................................................................................... 26
3.3 The Basic Questions of the Investigation ......................................... 29
3.4 Considerations of Theory .................................................................. 30
3.4.1 Philology ..................................................................................... 31
3.4.2 Semantics .................................................................................... 32
4 Content of the Book .................................................................................... 35
Chapter Two – Greek Literature ........................................................ 37
1 The Archaic Era .......................................................................................... 37
1.1 Homer .................................................................................................. 37
1.2 Aesop .................................................................................................... 40
1.3 Conclusion – The Archaic Era ........................................................... 41
2 Historians of the Classical Era ................................................................... 41
2.1 Herodotus ............................................................................................ 41
2.1.1 Herodotus’ Use of ¢nastauroàn ............................................ 42
2.1.2 Herodotus’ Use of ¢naskolop…zein ........................................ 48
2.1.3 Herodotus’ Use of Nail Terminology ..................................... 52
2.1.4 Conclusion – Herodotus and Crucifixion ............................... 55
2.2 Thucydides .......................................................................................... 59
2.3 Ctesias .................................................................................................. 61
2.4 Xenophon ............................................................................................ 63
2.5 Conclusion – Historians of the Classical Era .................................. 63
3 Philosophical Literature of the Classical Era ............................................ 65
3.1 Plato ...................................................................................................... 65
3.2 Aristotle .............................................................................................. 67
3.3 Conclusion – Philosophical Literature of the Classical Era ............ 67
4 Tragedy, Comedy and Orators of the Classical Era ................................ 67
4.1 Aeschylus ............................................................................................. 67
4.2 Sophocles ............................................................................................. 69
4.3 Euripides .............................................................................................. 70
4.4 Demosthenes ....................................................................................... 72
4.5 Conclusion – Tragedy, Comedy and Orators
of the Classical Era .............................................................................. 73
5 Greek Historians of the Hellenistic Era .................................................... 73
5.1 Polybius ............................................................................................... 73
5.1.1 Undefined Suspension Punishments in Polybius ................... 73
5.1.2 Post-Mortem Suspension in Polybius ...................................... 75
5.1.3 Ante-Mortem Suspension in Polybius ..................................... 76
3.1.4 Conclusion – Polybius and Crucifixion .................................. 77
5.2 Diodorus Siculus ................................................................................. 78
5.2.1 Undefined Suspensions in Diodorus Siculus ........................... 78
5.2.2 Post-Mortem Suspensions in Diodorus Siculus ...................... 80
5.2.3 Possible Impaling Accounts in Diodorus Siculus ................... 81
5.2.4 Possible Ante-Mortem Suspensions in Diodorus Siculus ...... 82
5.2.5 Suspension by Nailing in Diodorus Siculus ............................ 84
5.2.6 Conclusion – Diodorus Siculus and Crucifixion .................... 86
5.3 Conclusion – Historians of the Hellenistic Era ............................... 88
6 Papyrus and Fragmentary Texts of the Hellenistic Era ........................... 88
6.1 Papyrus Hellenica ............................................................................... 88
6.2 Alexis ................................................................................................... 89
6.3 Conclusion – Papyrus and Fragmentary Texts
of the Hellenistic Era .......................................................................... 89
7 Historians of the Roman Era ..................................................................... 90
7.1 Strabo ................................................................................................... 90
7.1.1 Suspension Texts in Strabo ....................................................... 90
7.1.2 Conclusion – Strabo and Crucifixion ...................................... 93
7.2 Dionysius of Halicarnassus ................................................................ 93
7.3 Flavius Josephus .................................................................................. 95
7.3.1 Texts Without Indications of the Suspension Form ............... 95
7.3.2 Texts With Indications of the Suspension Form ................... 100
7.3.3 Conclusion – Josephus and Crucifixion ................................ 109
7.4 Plutarch .............................................................................................. 111
7.4.1 Undefined Suspensions in Plutarch ........................................ 112
7.4.2 Suspension Accounts With Additional Information ............ 114
7.4.3 Nailing Accounts in Plutarch ................................................. 118
7.4.4 Plutarch’s Use of staurÒj ....................................................... 120
7.4.5 Conclusion – Plutarch and Crucifixion ................................. 123
7.5 Appian ................................................................................................ 125
7.5.1 Appian’s Use of stauroàn and staurÒj ............................... 125
7.5.2 Appian’s Use of kremannÚnai ................................................ 126
7.5.3 Conclusions – Appian and Crucifixion ................................. 129
7.6 Conclusion – Historians of the Roman Era ................................... 130
8 Philosophical and Poetical Authors of the Roman Era .......................... 131
8.1 Philo Judaeus ..................................................................................... 131
8.1.1 Undefined Suspensions in Philo ............................................. 131
8.1.2 Suspensions by Nailing in Philo ............................................. 135
8.1.3 Ante-Mortem Suspensions in Philo ....................................... 136
8.1.4 Conclusion – Philo and Crucifixion ...................................... 137
8.2 Chariton ............................................................................................. 138
8.2.1 The Suspension of Theron ...................................................... 138
8.2.2 The Suspension of Chaereas and His Cellmates ................... 139
8.2.3 A Recapitulation of the Suspensions ...................................... 140
8.2.4 Chariton’s Use of staurÒj ...................................................... 141
8.2.5 Conclusion – Chariton and Crucifixion ................................ 142
8.3 Conclusion – Philosophical and Poetical Literature
of the Roman Era ............................................................................. 142
9 Conclusion – The Greek Literature ......................................................... 143
9.1 The Terminology .............................................................................. 143
9.1.1 The Verbs .................................................................................. 143
9.1.2 The Nouns ................................................................................ 146
9.1.3 The Terminological Problem .................................................. 147
9.2 The Punishment ................................................................................ 147
Chapter Three – Latin Literature ...................................................... 151
1 Historians ................................................................................................... 151
1.1 Gaius Iulius Caesar ........................................................................... 151
1.2 Gaius Sallustius Crispus ................................................................... 152
1.3 Titus Livius ........................................................................................ 154
1.3.1 The Case Against Horatius ..................................................... 154
1.3.2 Livy’s Use of crux .................................................................... 156
1.3.3 Conclusion – Livy .................................................................... 159
1.4 Valerius Maximus .............................................................................. 159
1.4.1 Conclusion – Valerius Maximus ............................................. 161
1.5 Cornelius Tacitus .............................................................................. 161
1.5.1 Tacitus’ Use of Assumed Crucifixion Terminology ............. 162
1.5.2 Conclusion – Tacitus ............................................................... 167
1.6 Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus ............................................................ 167
1.6.1 Suetonius Use of crux and Accompanying Verbs ................. 167
1.6.2 The Ancient Custom ............................................................... 169
1.6.3 Conclusion – Suetonius ........................................................... 170
1.7 Clodius Licinius ................................................................................ 170
2 Playwrights ................................................................................................ 171
2.1 Titus Maccius Plautus ....................................................................... 171
2.1.1 Conclusion – Plautus ............................................................... 175
2.2 Publius Terentius Afer ...................................................................... 175
3 Rhetorical and Philosophical Texts .......................................................... 176
3.1 Marcus Tullius Cicero ...................................................................... 176
3.1.1 Cicero’s Oration Against Gaius Verres ................................. 176
3.1.2 Cicero’s Defense of Rabirius .................................................. 182
3.1.3 Conclusion – Cicero ................................................................ 183
3.2 Lucius Annaeus Seneca (the Elder) ................................................. 184
3.3 Lucius Annaeus Seneca (the Younger) ............................................ 186
3.3.1 Conclusion – Seneca the Younger .......................................... 191
3.4 Gaius Plinius Secundus ..................................................................... 192
3.5 Marcus Fabius Quintilianus ............................................................. 194
3.6 Quintus Curtius Rufus ..................................................................... 194
4 Poetry ......................................................................................................... 195
4.1 Gaius Valerius Catullus .................................................................... 196
4.2 Quintus Horatius Flaccus ................................................................ 196
4.3 Publius Ovidius Naso ....................................................................... 197
4.4 Marcus Valerius Martialis ................................................................. 198
4.5 Decimus Iunius Iuvenalis ................................................................. 198
5 Inscription .................................................................................................. 199
6 Conclusion – The Latin Literature .......................................................... 201
6.1 The Terminology .............................................................................. 202
6.2 The Punishment ................................................................................ 205
Chapter Four – The Old Testament and
Early Jewish Literature .................................................................... 209
1 The Old Testament ................................................................................... 211
1.1 Genesis ............................................................................................... 211
1.2 Numeri ............................................................................................... 213
1.3 Deuteronomy .................................................................................... 216
1.4 Joshua ................................................................................................. 217
1.5 The Books of Samuel ........................................................................ 219
1.6 Ezra .................................................................................................... 223
1.7 Esther ................................................................................................. 224
1.8 Lamentation ....................................................................................... 227
2 The Deuterocanonical Texts ..................................................................... 228
3 The Dead Sea Scrolls ................................................................................. 228
4 The Apocryphal Old Testament ............................................................... 231
5 Conclusion – Old Testament and Early Jewish Literature ................... 233
5.1 The Terminology .............................................................................. 233
5.2 The Punishment ................................................................................ 235
Chapter Five – The New Testament ................................................ 237
1 The Gospels ................................................................................................ 238
1.1 Jesus Foretells His Passion ............................................................... 238
1.2 To Carry One’s Own Cross ............................................................ 240
1.3 A People’s Call for Execution .......................................................... 242
1.4 The Road to Golgotha ...................................................................... 243
1.5 The Execution ................................................................................... 246
1.6 The Criminals .................................................................................... 248
1.7 The Mocking of Jesus ....................................................................... 249
1.8 The Death of Jesus ............................................................................ 250
2 Acts ............................................................................................................. 251
3 The Epistles Attributed to Paul ................................................................ 252
4 The Epistles Not Attributed To Paul ....................................................... 255
5 Revelation .................................................................................................. 257
6 Conclusion – The New Testament ........................................................... 257
Chapter Six – Discussion with Reference
Literature and Scholars .................................................................... 261
1 Discussion One – The Definition of Crucifixion .................................... 261
1.1 An Execution ..................................................................................... 262
1.2 In the Strict Sense, an Execution ...................................................... 263
1.3 Not Necessarily an Execution ......................................................... 264
1.4 Uncertainty, but Nevertheless a Crucifixion ................................. 265
1.5 A Better Way: A Suspension Among Others ................................. 267
1.6 Conclusion – The Definition of Crucifixion .................................. 270
2 Discussion Two – The Terminology of Crucifixion ................................ 271
2.1 The Greek Terminology ................................................................... 271
2.1.1 ¢nastauroàn and ¢naskolop…zein ........................................ 271
2.1.2 stauroàn ................................................................................... 274
2.1.3 staurÒj ..................................................................................... 276
2.1.4 kremannÚnai ............................................................................. 279
2.2 The Latin Terminology .................................................................... 280
2.3 The Hebrew-Aramaic Terminology ............................................... 281
2.4 Conclusion – The Terminology of Crucifixion ............................. 282
2.4.1 Verbs of the staur-Stem ......................................................... 283
2.4.2 ¢naskolop…zein ........................................................................ 283
2.4.3 staurÒj ..................................................................................... 284
2.4.4 kremannÚnai ............................................................................. 285
2.4.5 crux ............................................................................................ 286
2.4.6 patibulum .................................................................................. 286
2.4.7 The Hebrew-Aramaic Terminology ...................................... 287
2.4.8 The Terminology of Crucifixion ............................................ 287
3 Discussion Three – The Description of Crucifixion ................................ 287
3.1 The Scholarly Contributions ........................................................... 287
3.2 Evaluation of the Scholarly Contributions ..................................... 293
3.3 A Description of Crucifixion ........................................................... 296
4 Test Case I – The Archaeological Challenge .......................................... 297
5 Test Case II – Challenging the Basic Theory ......................................... 298
6 Test Case III - An Illustration of the Outcome ..................................... 301
6.1 Martin Hengel and Anna Maria Schwemer .................................... 301
6.2 Ethelbert Stauffer .............................................................................. 302
6.3 Joseph Blinzler .................................................................................. 302
6.4 Paul Winter ........................................................................................ 302
6.5 Johannes Schneider ........................................................................... 303
6.6 Gerald O’Collins ............................................................................... 303
6.7 Marcus J. Borg and John Dominic Crossan ................................... 303
6.8 Vassilos Tzaferis ................................................................................ 304
6.9 Eerdman’s Dictionary of the Bible .................................................. 304
6.10 The Tyndale Bible Dictionary ....................................................... 305
6.11 The Oxford Classical Dictionary .................................................. 305
6.12 The Encyclopædia Britannica ........................................................ 305
6.13 Conclusion ....................................................................................... 306
Chapter Seven – Conclusion ............................................................... 309
1. Answers to the Basic Questions of the Investigation ............................. 309
2. Conclusion ................................................................................................ 312
Epilogue ..................................................................................................... 315
Bibliography ............................................................................................. 317
1 Primary Sources (Texts and Translations) ......................................... 317
2 Reference Works .................................................................................. 326
3 Secondary Literature ............................................................................ 329
4 Internet .................................................................................................. 338
5 Reviews ................................................................................................. 338
Index of Ancient Sources ..................................................................... 339
1 Greek Literature ................................................................................... 339
2 Latin Literature .................................................................................... 346
3 Papyri and Non-Literary Sources ...................................................... 351
4 Old Testament ...................................................................................... 351
5 Old Testament Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha and Septuagint .......... 353
6 Targums ................................................................................................ 353
7 Early Jewish Literature ........................................................................ 354
8 New Testament .................................................................................... 354
9 Patristic Sources ................................................................................... 356
Index of Modern Authors ................................................................... 357
Index of Subject ....................................................................................... 361
1 English Terms ....................................................................................... 361
2 Greek Terms ......................................................................................... 362
3 Hebrew/Aramaic Terms ...................................................................... 363
4 Latin Terms .......................................................................................... 363