Crop Physiology Case Histories for Major Crops

Front Cover
Crop Physiology Case Histories for Major Crops
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
Preface
	References
Acknowledgements
Chapter 1 Maize
	1  Introduction
		1.1  Global trends
		1.2  Main production areas
		1.3  Maize in rotations: Suitability of previous and consequences for following crops
		1.4  Multiple cropping
	2  Crop structure, morphology, and development
		2.1  Main phenological events
		2.2  Genotypic and environmental drivers of maize development
			2.2.1  Temperature
			2.2.2  Photoperiod
	3  Growth and resources
		3.1  Capture and efficiency in the use of radiation
			3.1.1  Canopy size and light interception
			3.1.2  Radiation-use efficiency and its response to environmental factors
			3.1.3  Crop growth rate and growth duration in response to management practices
		3.2  Capture and efficiency in the use of water
			3.2.1  Environmental patterns of water supply and demand
			3.2.2  Root expansion and senescence, root size, architecture, and functionality
			3.2.3  Crop water use and canopy conductance as related to canopy architecture, stomatal conductance, and canopy-atmos ...
			3.2.4  Water use efficiency
			3.2.5  Management practices under water deficits
		3.3  Capture and efficiency in the use of nutrients
			3.3.1  Nutrient absorption, assimilation, accumulation, and remobilisation
			3.3.2  Effects of nutrients on crop development, growth, and grain yield
			3.3.3  Nutrients diagnosis and fertilisation requirements
				3.3.3.1  Nitrogen
					Supply–demand balance
					Soil determinations
					Plant determinations
					Simulation models
					Remote sensing
				3.3.3.2  Other nutrients
					Phosphorus
					Sulphur
					Potassium
					Zinc
			3.3.4  Interaction with agronomic practices
	4  Grain yield and quality
		4.1  Kernel number
		4.2  Kernel weight
		4.3  Biomass partitioning
		4.4  Grain quality
			4.4.1  Kernel hardness
			4.4.2  High-oil maize and acidic specialties
	5  Concluding remarks: Challenges and opportunities
	References
Chapter 2 Rice
	1  Introduction
		1.1  Global significance of rice
		1.2  Rice ecosystem classification with emphasis on water availability
		1.3  Crop management
			1.3.1  Crop establishment
			1.3.2  Water-saving methods
			1.3.3  Mechanisation
	2  Crop structure, morphology, and development
		2.1  Germination and seedling emergence
			2.1.1  Importance of seedbed in direct seeded rice
			2.1.2  Lodging in broadcasted rice
			2.1.3  Deep planting
		2.2  Phenological development
			2.2.1  Drivers of phenological development
			2.2.2  Global warming effect
			2.2.3  Crop establishment methods
			2.2.4  Crop ripening and maturity
		2.3  Shoot development and growth
		2.4  Rood development and growth
			2.4.1  Shallow root system
			2.4.2  Deep roots
	3  Growth and resources
		3.1  Capture and efficiency in the use of radiation
			3.1.1  Crop growth analysis with radiation interception
			3.1.2  Radiation use efficiency as reflection of leaf photosynthesis rate
			3.1.3  Radiation use efficiency as related to canopy structure
		3.2  Capture and efficiency in the use of water
			3.2.1  Water balance in lowlands
			3.2.2  Water requirement and water use efficiency
				3.2.2.1  Effect of crop establishment methods
				3.2.2.2  Effect of water-saving methods
				3.2.2.3  Other factors
		3.3  Capture and efficiency in the use of nutrients
			3.3.1  Nitrogen
				3.3.1.1  Plant N uptake and the fate of N in the field
					Nitrogen uptake and plant N concentration
					Nitrogen losses from the field
				3.3.1.2  Nitrogen use efficiency under favourable conditions
					Timing of fertiliser application affecting NUE
					Site-specific N management
					Controlled-release N fertiliser
					Genotypic variation
					Interaction between nitrogen and water
			3.3.2  Phosphorus
				3.3.2.1  Localised P application
				3.3.2.2  Interaction between P and water
				3.3.2.3  Genotypic variation
			3.3.3  Potassium
			3.3.4  Micronutrients
	4  Yield and quality
		4.1  Sink–source relations
			4.1.1  Determination of sink size
				4.1.1.1  Panicle number
				4.1.1.2  Spikelet number
				4.1.1.3  Grain set
				4.1.1.4  Potential grain size
				4.1.1.5  Application of yield component expression
				4.1.1.6  Transport system and sucrose conversion
			4.1.2  Assimilate supply to fill grains
			4.1.3  Genotypic variation in sink–source limitation to yield
				4.1.3.1  Varieties with increased sink size had higher yields
				4.1.3.2  Advantages of hybrids, particularly japonica-indica hybrids
				4.1.3.3  Other factors affecting genotypic variation in grain yield
		4.2  Response to abiotic factors
			4.2.1  Water deficit
				4.2.1.1  Types of drought and genotype × management options
				4.2.1.2  Adaptive traits
			4.2.2  Effect of increased CO 2 concentration
				4.2.2.1  Crop growth
				4.2.2.2  Grain yield and quality
			4.2.3  Submergence
			4.2.4  High temperature
				4.2.4.1  Reproductive growth
				4.2.4.2  Grain yield
					Importance of night-time temperature
					Genotypic variation
					Future global warming effect
			4.2.5  Low temperature
			4.2.6  Salinity
		4.3  Crop management for yield and quality
			4.3.1  Crop establishment
				4.3.1.1  Comparison of direct seeding and transplanting
					Yield
					Weeds
				4.3.1.2  Ratooning
				4.3.1.3  Perennial rice
			4.3.2  Water-saving technologies
				4.3.2.1  Alternate wetting and drying irrigation
				4.3.2.2  Aerobic rice
		4.4  Mechanisation
	5  Concluding remarks: Challenges and opportunities
		5.1  Adaptation mechanisms to reduced water input in irrigated system
			5.1.1  Dry direct seeding
			5.1.2  AWD
			5.1.3  Aerobic rice
		5.2  Adaptation mechanisms for drought avoidance in rainfed lowland rice
		5.3  Adaptation mechanism for mechanised rice farming
			5.3.1  Direct seeding, particularly drill planting
			5.3.2  Combine harvesting
		5.4  Factors determining grain set
		5.5  Enhancing yield potential
		5.6  Head rice yield
		Acknowledgement
	References
Chapter 3 Wheat
	1  Introduction
		1.1  Wheat origin, production, and yield
		1.2  Trends in production, area, and yield
	2  Crop structure, morphology, and development
		2.1  Yield determination
			2.1.1  Yield components
			2.1.2  Grain number determination
			2.1.3  Determination of potential grain weight
		2.2  Crop phenology
			2.2.1  Generation, appearance, and growth of organs
				2.2.1.1  Initiation of leaves, spikelets, and florets
				2.2.1.2  Appearance of leaves and tillering and growth of stems, spikes, and grains
			2.2.2  Phenological phases and scales
			2.2.3  Environmental factors affecting wheat development
				2.2.3.1  Temperature per se
				2.2.3.2  Vernalisation
				2.2.3.3  Photoperiod
			2.2.4  Genotypic differences and main genetic factors
	3  Capture and efficiency in the use of resources
		3.1  Capture and use efficiency of radiation
			3.1.1  Dynamics of radiation interception
			3.1.2  Radiation use efficiency
		3.2  Capture and efficiency in the use of water
			3.2.1  Crop evapotranspiration
			3.2.2  Water use efficiency
			3.2.3  Harvest index
		3.3  Capture and efficiency in the use of nutrients
			3.3.1  Nutrient absorption, assimilation, accumulation, and mobilisation
				3.3.1.1  Nutrient uptake efficiency
			3.3.2  Effects of nutrients on wheat growth
				3.3.2.1  Nutrient uptake and partitioning
				3.3.2.2  Crop nutrient demand
	4  Yield responsiveness to management and breeding
		4.1  Yield responsiveness to management and breeding
			4.1.1  How management practices affect yield
				4.1.1.1  Sowing date, density, and arrangement
				4.1.1.2  Fertilisation and irrigation
				4.1.1.3  Management of other constrains
			4.1.2  Impact of wheat breeding on grain yield and next steps
			4.1.3  Perspectives of wheat under climate change
	5  Quality
		5.1  Grain quality traits
		5.2  Grain proteins, nutrients, fibre, and healthy traits
			5.2.1.1  Grain nutrients, fibre, and healthy traits
		5.3  Sensitivity of grain quality traits to environmental stresses
		5.4  Grain quality and crop management
			5.4.1.1  Nitrogen and other nutrient fertilisers
	6  Concluding remarks: Challenges and opportunities
	References
Chapter 4 Barley
	1  Introduction
		1.1  Global trends in harvested area and yield
	2  Crop structure, morphology, and development
		2.1  Differentiation of vegetative and reproductive organs
		2.2  Dynamics of initiation and appearance of vegetative and reproductive organs
			2.2.1  Leaf and spikelet initiation into the apex
			2.2.2  Leaf emergence
			2.2.3  Tillering
		2.3  Genotypic and environmental drivers of barley development
			2.3.1  Temperature
			2.3.2  Vernalisation
			2.3.3  Photoperiod
	3  Growth and resources
		3.1  Capture and efficiency in the use of radiation
			3.1.1  Canopy size and radiation interception
			3.1.2  Radiation-use efficiency (RUE)
		3.2  Capture and efficiency in the use of water
			3.2.1  Environmental characterisation of water stress
			3.2.2  Root architecture and functionality
			3.2.3  Scaling from leaf to canopy: From stomatal conductance to water use efficiency
		3.3  Capture and efficiency in the use of nutrients
			3.3.1  Soil nitrogen acquisition
			3.3.2  Efficiency in the use of nitrogen and its partitioning to the grains
			3.3.3  Critical nitrogen dilution curve
			3.3.4  Relationship between grain yield and grain protein concentration
		3.4  Requirement of other nutrients
	4  Grain yield and quality
		4.1  Grain number and the critical period
		4.2  Grain filling
		4.3  Barley uses and grain quality
		4.4  Environmental factors altering quality
		4.5  Genetic factors determining malting and brewery quality
	5  Concluding remarks: Challenges and opportunities
	References
Chapter 5 Sorghum
	1  Introduction
		1.1  Agronomic context
	2  Crop structure, morphology, and development
		2.1  Crop phenology
		2.2  Adaptation to environmental conditions
	3  Growth and resources
		3.1  Capture and efficiency in the use of radiation
		3.2  Capture and efficiency in the use of water
			3.2.1  Increasing access to water
			3.2.2  Restricting preanthesis water use through canopy architecture
			3.2.3  Restricting preanthesis water use through transpiration rates
		3.3  Capture and efficiency in the use of nutrients
			3.3.1  Nitrogen uptake and dynamics
			3.3.2  N dynamics preanthesis
			3.3.3  N dynamics postanthesis
			3.3.4  Molecular analysis of soil microbes involved in the N cycle
			3.3.5  Phosphorus
	4  Yield and quality
		4.1  Grain number and size
		4.2  Grain quality
			4.2.1  Sorghum grain compositional quality
			4.2.2  End-use defines the value of different elements of compositional quality
		4.3  Crop stresses and effects on grain yield determination
			4.3.1  Water stress
			4.3.2  Temperature stress
	5  Concluding remarks: Challenges and opportunities
		5.1  Challenges and opportunities
		5.2  Research priorities
	References
Chapter 6 Oat
	1  Introduction
		1.1  Production and nutrition
		1.2  Agronomic roles of oat in farming systems
			1.2.1  Soil and environment for oat production
			1.2.2  Annual or multiple cropping system
			1.2.3  Oat in crop rotation
			1.2.4  Oat as a cover crop
	2  Crop structure, morphology, and development
		2.1  Phenology and critical growth stages
		2.2  Genotypic differences
		2.3  Environmental effect
		2.4  Manipulation of plant development
	3  Growth and resources
		3.1  Capture and efficiency in the use of radiation
			3.1.1  Canopy architecture and interception of radiation
				3.1.1.1  Early growth of leaf area
				3.1.1.2  Crop ideotype and canopy architecture
			3.1.2  Radiation use efficiency
				3.1.2.1  Duration of leaf photosynthesis
				3.1.2.2  Variations in radiation use efficiency
		3.2  Capture and efficiency in the use of water
			3.2.1  Oat water use and adaptation to water stress
			3.2.2  Agronomic options to improve crop water use
			3.2.3  Water use efficiency
			3.2.4  Water use efficiency in water-limited environment
			3.2.5  Agronomic options to improve transpiration efficiency
		3.3  Capture and efficiency in the use of nutrients
			3.3.1  Capture of nitrogen
			3.3.2  Management to improve nitrogen use efficiency
			3.3.3  Phosphorus
	4  Grain yield and quality
		4.1  Grain yield and yield components
			4.1.1  Interactions between genotype, environment, and management on grain yield
			4.1.2  Agronomic options to improve harvest index
		4.2  Grain quality
		4.3  Forage quality
	5  Concluding remarks: Challenges and opportunities
	References
Chapter 7 Quinoa
	1  Introduction
	2  Crop structure, morphology, and development
		2.1  Seed germination and conservation
		2.2  Phasic development
			2.2.1  Developmental scales
			2.2.2  Temperature responses
			2.2.3  Photoperiod responses
	3  Growth and resources
		3.1  Capture and efficiency in the use of radiation
			3.1.1  Radiation capture
			3.1.2  Radiation use efficiency
			3.1.3  Source activity during grain filling under high-yield conditions
		3.2  Capture and efficiency in the use of water
			3.2.1  Climate patterns
			3.2.2  Managing water use (ETc)
			3.2.3  Managing the proportion of water used by transpiration (T/ET)
			3.2.4  Transpiration efficiency (TE)
			3.2.5  Response of harvest index to water
		3.3  Capture and efficiency in the use of nutrients
			3.3.1  N uptake and partitioning
			3.3.2  Nitrogen dilution curve and other allometric relationships
			3.3.3  N uptake efficiency
			3.3.4  Nitrogen utilisation efficiency
			3.3.5  Yield vs protein concentration and interactions with other grain composition traits
	4  Yield and quality
		4.1  Critical periods of yield determination
		4.2  Dry matter and numeric yield components
		4.3  Grain weight
		4.4  Reproductive partitioning and limitations to grain yield
		4.5  Other stresses and interactions between stresses
	5  Grain quality
	6  Concluding remarks: Challenges and opportunities
	References
Chapter 8 Soybean
	1  Introduction
	2  Crop structure, morphology, and development
	3  Growth and resources
		3.1  Capture and efficiency in the use of radiation
		3.2  Capture and efficiency in the use of water
			3.2.1  Capture of water
			3.2.2  Water use efficiency
		3.3  Capture and efficiency in the use of nitrogen
		3.4  Dry matter and nitrogen partitioning
		3.5  Other nutrients
	4  Yield and quality
		4.1  Yield potential and yield gaps
		4.2  Seed quality
	5  Concluding remarks: Challenges and opportunities
	Acknowledgements
	References
Chapter 9 Field pea
	1  Introduction
		1.1  Origin and agronomy
		1.2  Pests and diseases
			1.2.1  Insect pests
			1.2.2  Fungal and bacterial disease
	2  Crop structure, morphology, and development
		2.1  Seed and plant characteristics
		2.2  Phenology
			2.2.1  Phenological progression
			2.2.2  Photoperiod and temperature
			2.2.3  Effect of extreme temperature and water stress
		2.3  Critical period
	3  Growth and resources
		3.1  Capture and efficiency in the use of radiation
			3.1.1  Radiation interception
			3.1.2  Radiation use efficiency
		3.2  Capture and efficiency of use of water
			3.2.1  Environmental and temporal patterns of water supply and demand
			3.2.2  Capture of water
			3.2.3  Water use efficiency
		3.3  Capture and efficiency in the use of nutrients
			3.3.1  Nitrogen
				3.3.1.1  Critical nitrogen concentration and residual soil nitrogen
			3.3.2  Other nutrients
	4  Yield and quality
		4.1  Grain number and weight
			4.1.1  Plant population density
			4.1.2  Grain number and grain weight
		4.2  Biomass and harvest index
		4.3  Yield and quality trade-offs
	5  Concluding remarks: Challenges and opportunities
	Acknowledgements
	References
Chapter 10 Chickpea
	1  Introduction and agronomic context
	1.1  Origin and ecology
		1.2  The role of chickpea in farming systems
	2  Crop structure, morphology, and development
	3  Growth and resources
		3.1  Capture and efficiency in the use of radiation
		3.2  Capture and efficiency in the use of water
			3.2.1  Environmental patterns of water supply and demand
			3.2.2  Canopy traits
			3.2.3  Root traits
			3.2.4  Water use efficiency
		3.3  Capture and efficiency in the use of nutrients
			3.3.1  Nitrogen
			3.3.2  Other nutrients
			3.3.3  Salinity
	4  Yield and quality
		4.1  Yield and its components
		4.2  Seed quality
	5  Concluding remarks: Challenges and opportunities
	References
Chapter 11 Peanut
	1  Introduction
		1.1  Area, production, and yield
	2  Crop structure, morphology, and development
		2.1  Sowing to emergence
		2.2  Emergence to flowering
		2.3  Flowering to maturity
			2.3.1  Temperature
			2.3.2  Water
			2.3.3  Interactions between temperature and water, and between temperature and photoperiod
		2.4  Combining sowing date and genotype to match growing environment
	3  Growth and resources
		3.1  Capture and efficiency in the use of radiation
		3.2  Capture and efficiency in the use of water
			3.2.1  Transpiration
			3.2.2  Transpiration efficiency
			3.2.3  Harvest index
	4  Capture and efficiency in the use of nutrients
		4.1  Nitrogen
			4.1.1  N fixation
			4.1.2  Response to soil mineral N
		4.2  Calcium
		4.3  Phosphorus
		4.4  Zinc
	5  Grain yield and quality
		5.1  Grain yield
			5.1.1  Ideotype breeding
		5.2  Seed quality
			5.2.1  Utilisation
			5.2.2  Health benefits and concerns
			5.2.3  Seed maturity
			5.2.4  Blanchability
			5.2.5  Oleic to linoleic acid ratio (hi-oleic)
		5.3  Trade-offs between yield and quality traits
	6  Concluding remarks: Challenges and opportunities
	Acknowledgements
	References
Chapter 12 Common bean
	1  Introduction
		1.1  Climatic zones
		1.2  Major growing regions
		1.3  Role in farming systems
		1.4  Implications of climate change
	2  Crop structure, morphology and development
		2.1  Morphological variation
		2.2  Taxonomy and gene pools
		2.3  Phenological development
			2.3.1  Vegetative development
			2.3.2  Reproductive development
		2.4  Determinancy and growth habit
		2.5  Critical stages of crop development
		2.6  Strategies for adaptation to climate change
	3  Growth and resources
		3.1  Capture and efficiency in the use of radiation
			3.1.1  Canopy architecture
			3.1.2  Photosynthesis at the leaf and canopy scale
		3.2  Capture and efficiency in the use of water
			3.2.1  Above-ground mechanisms
			3.2.2  Below-ground mechanisms
		3.3  Capture and efficiency in the use of nutrients
			3.3.1  Nitrogen
			3.3.2  Phosphorus
	4  Yield and quality
		4.1  Yield and related traits
		4.2  Nutritional quality
	5  Concluding remarks: Challenges and opportunities
	Acknowledgements
	References
Chapter 13 Lentil
	1  Introduction
	2  Crop structure, morphology, and development
		2.1  Crop structure: height and branching
		2.2  Phenological development
			2.2.1  Sowing to emergence
			2.2.2  Emergence to flowering
			2.2.3  Flowering to maturity
		2.3  Development and adaptation to stress
			2.3.1  Elevated temperature
			2.3.2  Water stress
			2.3.3  Salinity
	3  Growth and resources
		3.1  Capture and efficiency in the use of radiation
			3.1.1  Leaf area index and extinction coefficient
			3.1.2  Radiation use efficiency
			3.1.3  Lodging
		3.2  Capture and efficiency in the use of water
			3.2.1  Patterns of water supply and demand
			3.2.2  Root system
		3.3  Capture and efficiency in the use of nutrients
			3.3.1  Nitrogen
			3.3.2  Phosphorus
			3.3.3  Micronutrients
	4  Yield and quality
		4.1  Reproductive development
			4.1.1  Yield components
			4.1.2  Seed quality and composition
	5  Concluding remarks: Challenges and opportunities
	References
Chapter 14 Lupin
	1  Introduction
	2  Crop structure, morphology, and development
		2.1  Crop development
		2.2  Branching patterns
		2.3  Use of restricted branching in lupin breeding
		2.4  Dwarfism
	3  Growth and resources
		3.1  Capture and efficiency in the use of radiation
		3.2  Capture and efficiency of use of water
		3.3  Capture and efficiency of use of nutrients
			3.3.1  Nitrogen
			3.3.2  Phosphorus
	4  Yield and quality
		4.1  Yield
		4.2  Yield components
		4.3  Pod wall
		4.4  Grain protein
	5  Concluding remarks: Challenges and opportunities
	Acknowledgement
	References
Chapter 15 Faba bean
	1  Introduction
		1.1  Origin of the crop
		1.2  Cropping environment and production
	2  Crop structure, morphology, and development
		2.1  Crop structure
			2.1.1  Canopy
			2.1.2  Roots
			2.1.3  Flowers and fruits
			2.1.4  Flowering types
		2.2  Vegetative and reproductive responses
			2.2.1  Temperature
			2.2.2  Photoperiod
			2.2.3  Vernalisation
			2.2.4  Hardening
		2.3  Quantifying phenological development
			2.3.1  A phenological scale
			2.3.2  Phenological indices for simulation of faba bean development
				2.3.2.1  Sowing–emergence–first flower–last flower–physiological maturity
	3  Growth and resources
		3.1  Capture and efficiency in the use of radiation
			3.1.1  Canopy development
			3.1.2  Radiation capture
			3.1.3  Photosynthesis: Leaf to canopy
			3.1.4  Growth rates and RUE
		3.2  Capture and efficiency in the use of water
			3.2.1  Crop water balance
			3.2.2  Adaptation to water shortage
				3.2.2.1  Phenology
				3.2.2.2  Stomatal responses
				3.2.2.3  Canopy responses
				3.2.2.4  Root systems
				3.2.2.5  Options for future progress
		3.3  Capture and efficiency in the use of nutrients
			3.3.1  Mineral nutrients
			3.3.2  N 2 fixation mechanism and rates
			3.3.3  Soil acidification and root–root interactions in intercropping
			3.3.4  N uptake, storage, and mobilisation
	4  Yield and quality
		4.1  Crop yield
			4.1.1  Yield progress
			4.1.2  Benchmarking yield and yield gaps
		4.2  Yield components
			4.2.1  Grain size
		4.3  Indeterminate, determinate, and semideterminate cultivars
		4.4  Nutritional issues and grain quality
		4.5  Role of faba bean in cropping system productivity
		4.6  Biotic stresses
	5  Concluding remarks: Challenges and opportunities
		5.1  Maintaining yield gain
		5.2  Optimal cultivar design
		5.3  Intercropping
		5.4  Coordination of faba bean research
	Acknowledgements
	References
Chapter 16 Sunflower
	1  Introduction
		1.1  The role of sunflower crop in farming systems
		1.2  Sunflower-based cropping systems
		1.3  Implications of climate change for sunflower cropping
		1.4  Sunflower crop physiology research since the 1980s
	2  Crop structure, morphology and development
		2.1  Growth stages and phenophases
		2.2  Drivers of crop phenology and development
		2.3  Manipulation of crop development to match critical periods and environments
	3  Growth and resources
		3.1  Capture and efficiency in the use of radiation
			3.1.1  Potential and stress-limited canopy growth
			3.1.2  Natural and stress-limited canopy senescence
			3.1.3  Potential and stress-limited canopy architecture and radiation interception
			3.1.4  Potential and stress-limited crop radiation-use efficiency
			3.1.5  Other stresses
				3.1.5.1  Cold
				3.1.5.2  Salinity
		3.2  Capture and efficiency in the use of water
			3.2.1  Water management in sunflower
			3.2.2  Root expansion and senescence, root size, architecture and functionality
			3.2.3  Canopy conductance as related with stomatal conductance, canopy architecture and canopy–atmosphere coupling
			3.2.4  Root–shoot ratio and root–shoot integration
			3.2.5  Water use and water-use efficiency at crop level
		3.3  Capture and efficiency in the use of nutrients
			3.3.1  N requirement and uptake
			3.3.2  Efficiencies: Uptake per unit N in soil, biomass per unit N uptake and N harvest index
			3.3.3  Diagnostic tools: critical N dilution curves, N nutrition index and remote sensing
			3.3.4  Other nutrients: K, P and B
	4  Yield
		4.1  Frameworks of yield elaboration
		4.2  Allocation of dry matter
			4.2.1  Biomass partitioning
			4.2.2  Harvest index
		4.3  Components of grain yield
			4.3.1  Grain number
			4.3.2  Grain weight
			4.3.3  Interactions between grain number and grain weight
	5  Grain and oil quality
		5.1  Physiology of oil accumulation
			5.1.1  Fatty acids biosynthesis
			5.1.2  Oil accumulation dynamics
			5.1.3  Relationship between oil and protein concentrations
		5.2  Factors affecting oil concentration effects on oil concentration
			5.2.1  Genotypic variation of oil concentration
			5.2.2  Effect of intercepted solar radiation on oil concentration
			5.2.3  Effect of temperature on oil concentration
			5.2.4  Effect of water availability, nitrogen and plant density on oil concentration
		5.3  Sunflower oil quality
			5.3.1  Fatty acid composition
			5.3.2  Tocopherols and phytosterols
	6  Concluding remarks: Challenges and opportunities
	References
Chapter 17 Canola
	1  Introduction
		1.1  Origin, development and uses
		1.2  Global production systems
			1.2.1  Winter canola sown in autumn
			1.2.2  Spring canola sown in spring
			1.2.3  Spring canola sown in autumn
		1.3  Canola cropping systems
			1.3.1  Rotated monocrops
			1.3.2  Intercropping
		1.4  Agronomic implications of predicted climate change
	2  Crop structure, morphology and development
		2.1  Phenological stages
			2.1.1  Temperature
			2.1.2  Vernalisation
			2.1.3  Photoperiod
		2.2  Impact of development on yield potential and adaptive management
			2.2.1  Green bud visible stage
			2.2.2  Critical period
			2.2.3  Seed filling period
		2.3  Matching sowing date with varietal phenology in diverse environments
	3  Growth and resources
		3.1  Capture and efficiency in the use of radiation
			3.1.1  Radiation capture
			3.1.2  Canopy management
			3.1.3  Lodging
		3.2  Capture and efficiency in the use of water
		3.3  Capture and efficiency in the use of nutrients
			3.3.1  Nitrogen
			3.3.2  Sulphur and phosphorus
	4  Yield and quality
		4.1  Allocation of dry matter
		4.2  Yield components
			4.2.1  Seed number
			4.2.2  Seed size
		4.3  Seed quality—Oil and protein
	5  Concluding remarks: Challenges and opportunities
	References
Chapter 18 Potato
	1  Introduction
		1.1  Potato production systems
		1.2  Climate change
	2  Crop structure, morphology, and development
		2.1  Drivers of potato development
			2.1.1  Temperature
				2.1.1.1  Tuber yield response to temperature
			2.1.2  Photoperiod
			2.1.3  Light quality
			2.1.4  Hormones
	3  Growth and resources
		3.1  Capture and efficiency in the use of radiation
			3.1.1  Radiation capture
			3.1.2  Radiation-use efficiency
			3.1.3  Radiation interception and RUE in intercrops
		3.2  Capture and efficiency in the use of water
		3.3  Capture and efficiency in the use of nutrients
			3.3.1  Critical nutrient dilution curves
				3.3.1.1  Nitrogen and phosphorus nutrition indexes
			3.3.2  Nitrogen-use efficiency
				3.3.2.1  Nitrogen uptake efficiency
				3.3.2.2  Nitrogen utilisation efficiency
			3.3.3  Phosphorus-use efficiency
				3.3.3.1  Phosphorus uptake efficiency
				3.3.3.2  Phosphorus utilisation efficiency
				3.3.3.3  Harvest index
			3.3.4  Roots traits for nutrient uptake
	4  Yield and quality
		4.1  Yield
		4.2  Quality
	5  Conclusion: Challenges and opportunities
	References
Chapter 19 Cassava
	1  Introduction
		1.1  Origin of the crop
		1.2  Production environment
		1.3  Cassava production
		1.4  Role in the rural economy
		1.5  Cassava in cropping systems
	2  Crop structure, morphology and development
		2.1  Crop structure
		2.2  Stem cuttings
		2.3  Flower induction and branching
		2.4  Production of nodal units
		2.5  Leaves
		2.6  Stomates
		2.7  Tuber formation and growth
	3  Growth and resources
		3.1  Capture and efficiency in use of radiation
			3.1.1  Canopy expansion and senescence
			3.1.2  Interception of solar radiation
			3.1.3  Leaf photosynthesis
			3.1.4  Canopy photosynthesis
			3.1.5  Growth and respiration
			3.1.6  Crop growth rate
			3.1.7  Radiation-use efficiency
		3.2  Capture and efficiency in use of water
			3.2.1  Soil and crop water balance
			3.2.2  Root systems and water uptake
			3.2.3  Canopy responses to water shortage
			3.2.4  Stomatal control of crop water status
			3.2.5  Crop conductance and atmospheric coupling
			3.2.6  Capacitance
			3.2.7  Transpiration- and water-use efficiencies
			3.2.8  Response of cassava to timing and duration of water shortage
		3.3  Capture and efficiency in use of nutrients
			3.3.1  Cassava growth in response to soil fertility
			3.3.2  Accumulation and cycling of nutrients
			3.3.3  Extraction of nutrients in harvest
			3.3.4  Detection and remedy of nutrient deficiencies
			3.3.5  Further issues with key macro-nutrients
				3.3.5.1  Nitrogen
				3.3.5.2  Phosphorus
				3.3.5.3  Potassium
			3.3.6  Nutrient use efficiency in biomass production
	4  Yield and quality
		4.1  Yield formation in cassava
		4.2  Optimal design for high yield and stability
		4.3  Yield progress
		4.4  Potential yield and yield-gap analysis
			4.4.1  Rainfed water-limited potential yield according to edapho-climatic zone
			4.4.2  A regional yield-gap analysis from Brazil
			4.4.3  Closing the yield gap in Africa
		4.5  Nutrient management for sustainable yield
			4.5.1  Macro-nutrients for maintenance of yield
			4.5.2  Comparative nutrient extraction by cassava and alternative crops
			4.5.3  Intercrops, alley crops, and green manures
		4.6  Yield and production prospects under climate change
			4.6.1  Measured responses of cassava to climate change
			4.6.2  Some predicted responses of cassava to climate change
	5  Concluding remarks: Challenges and opportunities
		5.1  A two-part future
		5.2  Reduced production costs and greater labour productivity
		5.3  Super high-yielding cultivars for favourable areas
		5.4  High-yielding cultivars for drought-prone areas
		5.5  General considerations for field research
		5.6  Conceptualising knowledge
		5.7  Closing comment
	References
Chapter 20 Sugar beet
	1  Introduction
		1.1  Commodity sugar
		1.2  History
		1.3  The crop
		1.4  Breeding—G × E effect
		1.5  Seed production
		1.6  Cultivation and management
		1.7  Winter beet cultivation
		1.8  Growers’ management—G × E × M effect
	2  Crop structure, morphology, and development
		2.1  Emergence
		2.2  Bolting
		2.3  Leaf and canopy formation
		2.4  Storage root development
		2.5  Cambium ring formation
		2.6  Sugar storage
		2.7  Assimilate partitioning
		2.8  Limitations: Regulation of partitioning
		2.9  Implications of a sink limitation for breeding and management
		2.10  Genotype by environment interactions
		2.11  Temperature stress
		2.12  Manipulation of crop development as an adaptation to climate change
			2.12.1  Early sowing
			2.12.2  Winter beet cultivation in temperate climates
	3  Growth and resources
		3.1  Capture and efficiency in the use of radiation
		3.2  Capture and efficiency in the use of water
			3.2.1  Effect of drought stress
			3.2.2  Genetic variation for drought tolerance
			3.2.3  Causes of yield reduction under drought
		3.3  Capture and efficiency in the use of nutrients
			3.3.1  Nitrogen
				3.3.1.1  Physiological processes
				3.3.1.2  N management
			3.3.2  Potassium and sodium
				3.3.2.1  Physiological processes
				3.3.2.2  K and Na management
			3.3.3  Boron
				3.3.3.1  Physiological processes
				3.3.3.2  B management
	4  Yield and quality
		4.1  Yield and quality traits
		4.2  Impact on quality
		4.3  Sugar beet yield types
		4.4  Improvements through breeding
		4.5  Sugar beet storage
	5  Concluding remarks: Challenges and opportunities
	Author contributions
	References
Chapter 21 Sugarcane
	1  Introduction
	2  Crop structure, morphology, and development
		2.1  Germination
		2.2  Tillering
		2.3  Stalk elongation
		2.4  Flowering and seed formation
			2.4.1  Agronomy
			2.4.2  Genotype effects
		2.5  Maturation
	3  Growth and resources
		3.1  Capture and efficiency in the use of radiation
			3.1.1  Components of GLAI
			3.1.2  Extinction coefficient
			3.1.3  Dynamics of FIPAR
				3.1.3.1  Agronomic management
			3.1.4  Radiation use efficiency
				3.1.4.1  Atmospheric CO2 concentration
				3.1.4.2  Solar radiation and temperature
				3.1.4.3  Water status
				3.1.4.4  Nitrogen status
				3.1.4.5  Reduced growth phenomenon
			3.1.5  Prospects for yield improvement through breeding for improved radiation capture and efficiency of use
				3.1.5.1  Improved radiation capture
				3.1.5.2  Improved RUE
				3.1.5.3  Phenotyping for FI and RUE
		3.2  Capture and efficiency in the use of water
			3.2.1  Water uptake
				3.2.1.1  Potential water uptake
				3.2.1.2  Water limited water uptake
			3.2.2  Transpiration efficiency
			3.2.3  Increasing water uptake and WUE agronomically
			3.2.4  Crop improvement for increased WUE
		3.3  Capture and efficiency in the use of nutrients
			3.3.1  External N use efficiency (NUEe)
				3.3.1.1  Agronomic aspects of NUEe
			3.3.2  Internal N use efficiency (NUEi)
				3.3.2.1  Prospects for increasing NUEi
				3.3.2.2  Photosynthetic NUE
				3.3.2.3  Leaf [N]
	4  Yield and quality
		4.1  Whole plant biomass partitioning
		4.2  Internode sucrose accumulation
		4.3  Agronomic management to maximise sucrose yields
		4.4  Breeding for high sucrose yields
		4.5  Climate change impacts on yield
	5  Concluding remarks: Challenges and opportunities
	References
Chapter 22 Cotton
	1  Introduction
	2  Crop structure, morphology, and development
		2.1  Developmental phases
			2.1.1  Stand establishment
			2.1.2  Canopy development
			2.1.3  Flowering and boll development
			2.1.4  Crop maturity
		2.2  General considerations
	3  Growth and resources
		3.1  Capture and efficiency in the use of radiation
			3.1.1  Canopy radiation interception
			3.1.2  Photosynthesis
			3.1.3  Radiation use efficiency
			3.1.4  Challenges and opportunities with climate change
		3.2  Water use efficiency
		3.3  Capture and efficiency in the use of nutrients
			3.3.1  N uptake
			3.3.2  Intrinsic nitrogen use efficiency
	4  Yield and quality
		4.1  Genotype
		4.2  Production environment
			4.2.1  Water
			4.2.2  Nutrients
			4.2.3  Temperature
	5  Concluding remarks: Challenges and opportunities
	References
Index
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