Crop Ferality and Volunteerism

Foreword......Page 6
Contributors......Page 8
Table of Contents......Page 12
1.1.1 Definitions......Page 24
1.2 The Need for a Synthesis of Information on Plant Ferality......Page 25
1.2.1 Outcomes of the Syntheses......Page 26
1.3 The Biodiversity of Feral Forms and Their Evolution......Page 28
1.4 Ferality and Scientific Terminology — A Caution......Page 29
Literature Cited......Page 30
2.2.1 The Domestication Process......Page 32
2.2.3 Crop-Weed-Wild Complex......Page 34
2.2.4 Genetics of Domestication and Weediness Traits......Page 35
2.2.6 Crop Ferality......Page 38
2.3 Degree of Crop Domestication......Page 39
2.4 The Effects of Transgenes and Genetic Linkage......Page 45
2.4.2 Other Transgenes......Page 46
2.5 Conclusions......Page 47
Literature Cited......Page 48
3.2 Reversion of Crops to Wild Types......Page 54
3.3.1 Methods of Detection......Page 55
3.3.2 Archaeobotanical Studies — The Example of Hulled Wheat......Page 61
Literature Cited......Page 64
4.1 History of Beet Domestication......Page 68
4.2 Hybridization and Gene Flow in Beet......Page 69
4.3 Ferality in Beet Connected to the Bolting Gene "B"......Page 71
4.4 Potential Impact of Transgenes on Ferality......Page 73
4.5 Conclusions and Outlook......Page 75
Acknowledgments......Page 76
Literature Cited......Page 77
5.1 Introduction......Page 82
5.2 Brassica rapa and B. napus, Origins and Biology......Page 83
5.2.2 Crop Improvement Objectives, Domestication, and Ferality......Page 84
5.3 Biological Characteristics Influencing Weediness......Page 86
5.4 Presence and Persistence of Volunteer B. rapa and B. napus......Page 89
5.4.1 Influence of Herbicide-Resistance Traits on Persistence and Ferality......Page 91
5.4.2 Anticipated and Unintended Consequences......Page 93
5.4.3 A Simple Scenario for Population Demographics in Western Canada......Page 94
Literature Cited......Page 96
6.1 Introduction......Page 104
6.2 Domestication of Foxtail Millet......Page 105
6.2.1 Domesticated Traits......Page 106
6.2.2 The Genetic Bases of Domestication and Dedomestication......Page 108
6.3.1 Why No Volunteers?......Page 109
6.3.2 Setaria viridis ssp. pycnocoma......Page 110
6.3.3 Gene Flow......Page 112
6.4.1 Setaria verticillata......Page 113
6.4.2 Setaria faberii......Page 114
6.5 Conclusions......Page 115
Literature Cited......Page 116
7.1 Introduction......Page 120
7.2 Urban Ornamentals — A Heterogeneous Species Pool......Page 121
7.3.1 How Many Species Will Spread?......Page 123
7.3.2 Naturalization of Deliberately Introduced Species......Page 124
7.3.3 Evoking Negative Effects — Problematic Plant Invasions......Page 125
7.3.4 Temporal Patterns — Lag Time between Cultivation and Escape......Page 126
7.3.5 Spatial Pattern — From Cultivation Sites to Natural Ecosystems......Page 127
7.4.1 Ecological Role of Cultivation......Page 130
7.4.2 Spread as a Response to Environmental Changes......Page 131
7.4.3 Dedomestication Processes......Page 132
7.5 Can We Predict the Spread of Introduced Ornamentals?......Page 135
7.6 Conclusions......Page 136
Literature Cited......Page 137
8.2 The Sorghum Taxa......Page 146
8.2.1 Cultivated Sorghums......Page 148
8.2.2 Wild and Weedy Sorghums......Page 149
8.3 Weedy Sorghums in Agroecosystems......Page 150
8.4.1 Weed-to-Crop Gene Flow......Page 151
8.4.2 Crop-to-Weed Gene Flow......Page 152
8.4.3 Consequences of Recurrent Gene Flow......Page 153
8.4.4 Gene Flow in the Transgenic Era......Page 155
Literature Cited......Page 156
9.1 Introduction......Page 160
9.2 Soybean and Its Weedy and Wild Relatives......Page 161
9.2.1 Distribution and Relationships of Soybean and Its Wild Relatives......Page 163
9.2.2 The Potential of Transgene Flow in Soybean Species......Page 165
9.3 Possible Consequences of Gene Flow from Transgenic Soybean......Page 166
Literature Cited......Page 168
Questions and Answers......Page 169
10.1 Introduction......Page 172
10.2 Current Maize and Soybean Production......Page 173
10.2.3 Status of Biotechnologically Derived Traits in Maize and Soybean......Page 175
10.3.1 Potential for Introgression with Compatible Plant Species in the Agroecosystem......Page 176
10.4 Extent of Volunteerism in Maize and Soybeans......Page 177
10.4.1 Weedy Characteristics of Volunteer Maize......Page 178
10.4.2 Weedy Characteristics of Soybeans......Page 179
10.5 Volunteers Need Not Be in Fields — Identity Preservation and Derived Traits......Page 180
10.5.1 Implications of Volunteerism on Labeling Requirements and Regulations......Page 181
10.6 Conclusions......Page 185
Literature Cited......Page 186
11.2 Wheat Domestication......Page 190
11.3.1 The Approach and the Materials......Page 191
11.3.3 Differential Expression of Genes in Young Spikes of Wild vs. Domesticated Wheat......Page 192
11.5 Semiwild Wheat from Tibet — A Case of Dedomestication?......Page 194
Acknowledgments......Page 195
Literature Cited......Page 196
12.1 Introduction......Page 198
12.1.2 Taxonomy of Rye and Its Relatives......Page 199
12.2 History of Domestication......Page 202
12.2.2 Wild and Weedy Rye in Eurasia......Page 203
12.2.3 Distribution of Rye and Weedy Rye in North America......Page 204
12.2.4 Weedy Rye in the Western U.S......Page 207
12.2.5 Introductions of Mountain Rye and Hybrid Michels Grass......Page 208
12.3.1 Genetic Analysis......Page 209
12.4 Summary and Discussion......Page 211
Acknowledgments......Page 212
Literature Cited......Page 213
Questions and Answers......Page 214
13.2 Early Domestication......Page 216
13.3 Modern Radish Varieties with Edible Roots......Page 218
13.4.1 Characteristics of Weedy Raphanus raphanistrum......Page 220
13.4.2 Weedy Traits and Endoferality......Page 221
13.5.1 General Considerations......Page 223
13.5.2 Herbicide-Resistant Feral Raphanus sativus in Southern Brazil......Page 224
13.5.4 Crop-Weed Hybridization in Experimental Populations in Michigan......Page 225
13.6 Conclusions......Page 227
Literature Cited......Page 228
14.1.2 Domestication and Breeding Sunflower and Jerusalem Artichoke......Page 232
14.1.3 Where Did Helianthus Establish in the Wild Outside Its Native Area?......Page 233
14.1.4 Why Do We Care about These Volunteer or Feral Populations?......Page 234
14.2.1 Escaped and Permanent Wild Sunflower Populations in Italy and Spain......Page 235
14.2.2 A Case Study — Model of Wild Sunflower Establishment Near Montpellier......Page 236
14.2.3 Existing Volunteer Populations — Record, Localization, Fate, and Establishment......Page 239
14.3.1 Hybridization Rate Efficiency with Sunflower......Page 241
14.3.2 Feral Jerusalem Artichoke Populations......Page 242
14.3.3 Studies on Jerusalem Artichoke Populations......Page 243
14.4.2 Modeling......Page 244
14.4.3 Sunflower......Page 245
14.5.1 Major Risks of Crop-Allele Gene Flow in Europe......Page 246
14.6 Conclusion......Page 248
14.7.2 Molecular Tools Available for Sunflower......Page 249
Literature Cited......Page 250
Questions and Answers......Page 252
15.2.1 Cytogenetic Interrelationships and Crossability......Page 254
15.2.2 Origin of Fatuoids......Page 255
15.3 Olives......Page 256
15.4.3 Azuki Bean......Page 258
15.5 The Ryegrass Complex......Page 259
15.5.2 Ecogeographical Adaptation — Spatial Separation of the Species......Page 260
15.5.3 Interfertility......Page 261
15.5.4 Pollen Flow......Page 263
15.6 Safflower — Ferality in a Plant-Made Pharmaceutical Platform......Page 265
15.6.2 Safflower, Systematics, Biology, Biogeography......Page 266
15.6.3 Domestication Traits in Safflower......Page 268
15.6.4 Ferality of Safflower......Page 269
15.7 Sugarcane......Page 270
Literature Cited......Page 272
16.1.1 The Genus Oryza in Relation to Rice......Page 280
16.2.1 Domestication Processes......Page 283
16.2.2 Places of Domestication......Page 285
16.2.3 Genetics of Domestication......Page 286
16.3 Diversification of Rice......Page 287
16.3.1 Evolution of Weedy Rice......Page 288
16.4.1 Gene Flow in the Rice Crop Complex......Page 290
16.4.2 Evolution of Weedy Rice in Rice Fields......Page 293
16.5 Concluding Comments......Page 294
Literature Cited......Page 296
Questions and Answers......Page 299
17.2.1 Weedy Rice Species and Their Distribution......Page 302
17.3.1 Direct Competitive Effects of Weedy Rice......Page 303
17.4.1 Agronomic Practices and Weedy Rice Management......Page 304
17.4.2 Chemical Control and Herbicide-Resistant Rice......Page 306
17.5.1 Domestication and Weediness......Page 307
17.5.2 Contaminated Seed......Page 308
17.5.3 Farmer Attitudes about Weedy Rice and Its Dissemination......Page 309
17.6 Going Undetected......Page 310
Literature Cited......Page 312
18.1.1 Land Use in Rice Cultivation in Sri Lanka......Page 318
18.1.2 Wild and Weedy Rices in Sri Lanka......Page 319
18.2 Methodology......Page 320
18.3.1 Field Observations of Morphological Characteristics......Page 321
18.3.3 Plant Growth Characteristics under Greenhouse Conditions......Page 322
18.4 Concluding Remarks......Page 324
Literature Cited......Page 325
19.1 Introduction and Dissemination of Rice in the Americas......Page 328
19.2.1 Overview of Species Composition and Distribution......Page 329
19.2.2 Distributions and Genetic Diversity of Wild Oryza Species in Costa Rica......Page 331
19.2.3 Oryza glumaepatula, the AA Genome Wild Relative of Rice in Tropical America......Page 332
19.2.4 Is Gene Flow between Native Wild Oryza Species and Rice (O. sativa) Possible in the Field?......Page 333
19.3 Coexistence of Weedy Rice with Domestic Rice in Fields......Page 334
19.3.1 Costa Rican Weedy Rice......Page 335
19.3.2 Colombian Weedy Rice......Page 336
19.3.3 Weedy Rice Resemblance across Two Countries......Page 338
19.4 Rice–Weedy Rice Gene Flow in Tropical America......Page 339
19.5 Conclusions......Page 341
Literature Cited......Page 342
20.1.2 History of Cultivar Development......Page 346
20.2.1 Introduction and Distribution in the U.S.......Page 347
20.2.2 Economic and Agronomic Impacts of Red Rice......Page 348
20.2.3 Phenotypic and Genetic Characterization of Red Rice Populations......Page 349
20.2.4 Differential Herbicide Resistance in Red Rice Populations......Page 350
20.3.2 IMI-Resistant Rice......Page 351
20.4.1 Biological Basis for Outcrossing in Oryza sativa......Page 353
20.4.3 Biotic and Abiotic Factors Affecting Rice-Rice and Rice-Weedy Rice Outcrossing Rates......Page 354
20.4.4 Directionality of Outcrossing......Page 363
20.4.5 Average Outcrossing Estimates for Rice, Herbicide-Resistant Rice, and Weedy Rice Combinations......Page 364
20.4.7 Introgression Rate Considerations......Page 365
20.5.1 Key Traits in F₁ Hybrids......Page 366
20.6 Backcrossing Considerations......Page 367
20.7.1 Dormancy and Shattering......Page 368
20.8 Anecdotal Evidence of Gene Flow between Red Rice and Rice in the U.S.?......Page 369
20.8.3 Short Stature, Short Awn Red Rice Plants Detected at Low Frequencies......Page 370
20.10 Concluding Remarks......Page 371
Literature Cited......Page 373
Questions and Answers......Page 377
21.1 Spread and Importance of Weedy Rice in Europe......Page 378
21.2 Weedy Rice Biology in Relation to Population Dynamics......Page 379
21.2.2 Seedling Emergence......Page 380
21.3 Modeling Weedy Rice Infestation Dynamics......Page 381
21.4.2 Sensitivity Analysis — Singling Out Crucial Factors......Page 384
21.4.3 Simulation of Scenarios......Page 386
21.5 Conclusions......Page 389
Literature Cited......Page 390
22.1.1 Molecular Tools to Prevent or Overcome Ferality in Traditionally Bred Crops......Page 394
22.2 Methods for Precluding Feral Traits from Becoming Predominant in Populations......Page 395
22.2.1 Containing Gene Flow......Page 396
22.2.2 Preventing Volunteer Establishment by Transgenic Mitigation......Page 397
22.3.1 Transgenic Mitigation Genes for Crop-Produced Pharmaceuticals and Industrial Products......Page 403
22.3.3 Mitigation of Ferality in Species Used for Phytoremediation......Page 404
22.3.5 Tac-Tics for Eliminating Feral Forms of Pasture Grasses......Page 405
Acknowledgments......Page 408
Literature Cited......Page 409
23.2 What Is a Risk Assessment?......Page 412
23.3 Tiered Testing and Risk Assessment......Page 413
23.4 General Requirements for Assessing Risks from Volunteer Trangenic Crops......Page 414
23.5.1 Regulatory Obligations......Page 415
23.5.2 Harmful Effects of Volunteer Crops......Page 416
23.5.4 Making Assessment Endpoints Operational......Page 417
23.6 Hazards, Exposure, and Risks of Volunteer Transgenic Crops......Page 418
23.7.1 Abundance......Page 419
23.7.2 Composition......Page 420
23.8 Exposure Assessments......Page 421
23.10 Conclusions — Acceptable Risks and Trigger Values......Page 422
Literature Cited......Page 423
24.1 Introduction......Page 426
24.2 Trends in Regulation — Estimating Risk......Page 427
24.3.1 Verbal Models......Page 428
24.3.3 Simulation Models......Page 429
Literature Cited......Page 431
25.2 Volunteerism......Page 434
25.3 Ferality......Page 435
B......Page 436
D......Page 437
G......Page 438
I......Page 439
M......Page 440
P......Page 441
S......Page 442
W......Page 444
Z......Page 445