Crimes Against Humanity: Historical Evolution and Contemporary Application

Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Preface......Page 13
Acknowledgments......Page 17
Table of Abbreviations......Page 19
Introduction......Page 29
Introduction......Page 41
§1. The Characteristics of International Crimes and Their Applicability to CAH......Page 48
§2. The Concept and Relevance of State Policy......Page 54
§3. The Legal Elements that Characterize CAH as an International Crime......Page 59
§4. The Protected Civilian Population under CAH......Page 68
§4.1. The Distinguishing Element of an Attack against a Civilian Population......Page 70
§5. CAHs Historical Connection to War......Page 73
§6. Imputability of Individual Conduct to the Responsibility of the State......Page 74
§7. The Policy Requirement for Nonstate Actors......Page 80
§8. Some Philosophical Considerations......Page 82
§9. Policy Considerations......Page 85
Introduction......Page 91
§1. Etiology and Phenomenological Characteristics......Page 93
§1.1. The Protagonists......Page 98
§1.2. Neutralization......Page 100
§1.3. Apathy, Indifference, and Passivity......Page 101
§1.4. Dehumanization, Subhumanization, and Objectification......Page 103
§1.5. The “Banality of Evil”......Page 104
§1.6. Euphemisms and Rationalizations......Page 106
§1.7. Motivation......Page 109
§2.1. Considerations on Legal Philosophy......Page 111
§2.2. International and Domestic Criminal Law Considerations......Page 114
§2.2.1. ICL Considerations......Page 117
§2.2.2. International Human Rights Law......Page 120
§3. The Enforcement Gap......Page 121
Conclusion......Page 123
§1. Early History......Page 126
§2. The Concept of “Laws of Humanity” in the History of the Law of Armed Conflicts......Page 136
§3. The Law of the London Charter: Crimes Against Humanity Acquires Its Own Identity......Page 151
§4. The Legislative History of the London Charters Article 6(c)......Page 157
§5. Law and Policy Considerations in the Making of the Charter......Page 167
§6. Post-World War II Formulations Arising out of the London Charter: The IMTFE and Control Council Law No. 10......Page 172
Article II......Page 173
§7. The War-Connecting Link in the London Charter......Page 176
§8. The London Charter as Declarative of Customary International Law and Subsequent Affirmations Confirming CAH as an International Crime......Page 186
§9. Post-World War II Prosecutions Pursuant to the London Charter and the Tokyo Statute......Page 190
§10. The Allied Prosecutions of the CCL 10 Proceedings in the European and Far Eastern Theaters......Page 196
Conclusion......Page 203
Introduction......Page 207
§1. The ILCs Codification Efforts: 1947–1996......Page 211
§2. The Security Councils Codifications: The Statutes of the ICTY and the ICTR......Page 223
§3. The Prosecutions for CAH at the ICTY and the ICTR......Page 229
§4. The Rome Statute of the ICC......Page 239
§5. The Status of CAH Prosecutions before the ICC......Page 244
§6. Other Normative Proscriptions Applicable to the Same Protected Human Interests......Page 248
§6.1 1948 Genocide Convention......Page 249
§6.3. 1973 Apartheid Convention......Page 250
§6.4. 1984 Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment......Page 252
§6.6. The International Human Rights Law Regime......Page 253
§7. The Mixed Model Tribunals......Page 258
§7.1. Kosovo......Page 262
§7.2. Bosnia and Herzegovina......Page 268
§7.3. Sierra Leone......Page 273
§7.4. Timor-Leste......Page 286
§7.5. Cambodia......Page 294
§8. Crimes Against Humanity as Part of Jus Cogens......Page 303
§1. Aut Dedere aut Judicare......Page 309
§2. The Post-Charter Duty to Prosecute or Extradite......Page 313
§3. Nonapplicability of Statutes of Limitation......Page 316
§4. Universal Jurisdiction......Page 319
Conclusion......Page 334
Introduction......Page 336
§1. Principles of Legality in International Criminal Law......Page 341
§2. The London Charters Approach......Page 347
§2.1. Pragmatism Prevails......Page 357
§2.2. The German Legal System......Page 360
§3. The Prosecutions Treatment of the Question under the London Charter, the IMTFE, and Control Council No. 10......Page 362
§4. Assessment of Legality Issues in Post-World War II Prosecutions......Page 374
§5.1. The ICTY and the ICTR......Page 382
§5.2. The ICC......Page 389
§5.3. Principles of Legality in Other Post-Charter Legal Developments......Page 393
Conclusion......Page 398
§1. Introduction......Page 399
§2. Identifying the Specific Crimes Contained in the Four Primary Formulations of Crimes Against Humanity: Article 6(c)
of the London Charter, Article 5 of the ICTY Statute, Article 3 of
the ICTR Statute, and Article 7 of the ICC Statute......Page 401
§2.1. Murder and Extermination......Page 405
§2.2. Enslavement......Page 414
§2.3. Deportation......Page 421
§2.4. Persecution......Page 436
§2.5. Other Inhumane Acts......Page 445
§2.6 Torture......Page 451
§2.7. Unlawful Human Experimentation......Page 459
§2.8. Rape and Sexual Violence......Page 465
§2.9. Imprisonment......Page 483
§3.1. Apartheid......Page 485
§3.2. Enforced Disappearance of Persons......Page 488
§4. Normative Overlap......Page 492
§5. “General Principles of Law”: Meaning, Method, and Function......Page 499
§5.1. The Worlds Major Legal Systems......Page 506
§5.3. Correlation Between the Sources of Law to Be Consulted and the Principle Sought to Be Identified......Page 507
Conclusion......Page 510
Introduction......Page 512
§1. International Criminal Responsibility of Individuals......Page 513
§1.1. Doctrinal Differences in International Law and National Criminal Law Related to Individual, Group, and State Responsibility: General Considerations......Page 518
§1.2. Responsibility for the Conduct of Another and Group Responsibility in the Law of the IMT, IMTFE, and CCL 10: The Foundations of Contemporary Notions......Page 522
§2. Criminal Responsibility and the “General Part”: From the IMT to the ICC......Page 534
§2.1. National Legal Norms and Standards and Their Relevance to International Criminal Law......Page 540
§2.2. Problems in Identifying the Contents of the “General Part” of International Criminal Law: From the London Charter to the Rome Statute......Page 545
§2.3. The Jurisprudential Application of the “General Part”: From the IMT to the ICC......Page 547
§3. Knowledge of the Law and Intent......Page 552
§4. The Jurisprudence of the ICTY and ICTR on Individual Criminal Responsibility......Page 560
§4.1. Planning, Instigating, Ordering, and Committing......Page 561
§4.2. Aiding and Abetting......Page 564
§5. Command Responsibility: Policy Considerations......Page 566
§5.1. The Evolution of Command Responsibility in the Law of Armed Conflicts as Reflected in the Law and Jurisprudence of the ICTY, the ICTR, and the ICC......Page 570
§5.2. Civilian Command Responsibility in the ICTY, the ICTR, and the ICC......Page 597
§6. Joint Criminal Enterprise: The ICTYs New Doctrine and Its Extended Influence......Page 600
§6.1. Organisationsherrschaft......Page 615
Conclusion......Page 617
Introduction......Page 621
§1.1. Rationale......Page 623
§1.2. Policy Considerations......Page 626
§1.3. Scholarly Views......Page 630
§1.4. The Judgments of Tribunals......Page 634
§1.5. Post-Charter Developments......Page 645
§1.6. Conclusion......Page 652
§2. Coercion (Compulsion and Duress) and Necessity......Page 653
§3.1. Introduction......Page 663
§3.2. Historical Evolution......Page 664
§4. Tu Quoque......Page 674
§6. Immunity of Heads of State......Page 677
Conclusion......Page 684
Introduction......Page 689
§1. Pre-World War I National Prosecutions for International Crimes......Page 691
§2. Post-World War I Prosecutions......Page 695
§3.1. National Legislation Criminalizing CAH......Page 700
§3.2. Post-World War II Major National Prosecutions for CAH......Page 704
§3.2.1. Germany......Page 705
§3.2.2. Austria......Page 708
§3.2.3. Israel......Page 709
§3.2.4. France......Page 711
§3.2.5. Italy......Page 719
§3.2.6. Canada......Page 720
§3.2.7. Spain......Page 724
§3.2.8. Argentina......Page 725
§3.2.9. Indonesia......Page 732
§3.2.10. Iraq......Page 735
§4. Other Recent Developments and National Prosecutions for CAH......Page 737
§5. Selective Enforcement......Page 755
Conclusion......Page 760
10 Concluding Assessment: The Need for an International Convention......Page 764
Books......Page 783
Articles......Page 803
Table of Cases......Page 837
Index......Page 859