CRC Handbook of Thermal Engineering (Handbook Series for Mechanical Engineering)

Cover......Page 1
Acknowledgment......Page 4
Introduction......Page 6
Nomenclature......Page 8
Editor-in-Chief......Page 14
Advisory Board......Page 15
Contributors......Page 16
SECTION 3 Heat and Mass Transfer......Page 20
SECTION 5 Numerical Analysis and Computational Tools......Page 21
APPENDICES......Page 22
1 Engineering Thermodynamics......Page 25
Process, Cycle......Page 26
Temperature......Page 27
Work......Page 28
Heat......Page 29
Power Cycles......Page 30
Irreversibilities......Page 31
Carnot Corollaries......Page 32
Carnot Efficienc......Page 33
Entropy......Page 34
Entropy Balance......Page 35
Control Volume Energy Balance......Page 38
Control Volume Entropy Balance......Page 39
Control Volumes at Steady State......Page 40
Example 2......Page 43
Internally Reversible Heat Transfer and Work......Page 44
Basic Relations for Pure Substances......Page 46
Example 4......Page 47
Specific Heats and Other Propertie......Page 48
Example 5......Page 49
P-v-T Surface......Page 52
Compressibility Charts......Page 54
Equations of State......Page 59
Gas Mixtures......Page 60
Evaluating .h, .u, and .s......Page 61
Example 6......Page 62
Thermodynamic Data Retrieval......Page 64
Ideal Gas Model......Page 68
Example 8......Page 70
Ideal Gas Mixtures......Page 73
Moist Air......Page 74
Generalized Charts for Enthalpy, Entropy, and Fugacity......Page 75
Multicomponent Systems......Page 78
Chemical Potential......Page 79
Ideal Solution......Page 80
Reaction Equations......Page 82
Example 9......Page 83
Enthalpy of Formation......Page 84
Absolute Entropy......Page 86
Example 10......Page 87
Gibbs Function of Formation......Page 89
Example 11......Page 90
Example 12......Page 91
Environment......Page 93
Control Volume Exergy Rate Balance......Page 94
Chemical Exergy......Page 95
Example 13......Page 96
Exergetic Efficienc......Page 97
Example 14......Page 98
Introduction to Exergy Costing......Page 100
Example 15......Page 101
Rankine and Brayton Cycles......Page 102
Otto, Diesel, and Dual Cycles......Page 104
Carnot, Ericsson, and Stirling Cycles......Page 107
1.7 Guidelines for Improving Thermodynamic Effectiveness......Page 111
1.8 Exergoeconomics......Page 112
Exergy Costing......Page 113
Cost Balance......Page 114
Step 2: Defnition of Fuel and Product......Page 115
General Example......Page 116
Exergoeconomic Variables and Evaluation......Page 118
1.9 Design Optimization......Page 119
An Iterative Exergoeconomic Procedure for Optimizing the Design of a Thermal System......Page 120
Case Study......Page 122
First Design Case......Page 123
Second Design Case......Page 124
Additional Iterations......Page 125
Principles of Economic Evaluation......Page 126
References......Page 129
2 Fluid Mechanics......Page 134
Hydrostatic Pressure......Page 135
Forces on Plane Surfaces......Page 136
Forces on Curved Surfaces......Page 138
Buoyancy......Page 139
Partially Submerged Body......Page 140
Uniform Linear Acceleration......Page 141
Rigid-Body Rotation......Page 142
Further Information......Page 143
Conservation of Mass......Page 144
Conservation of Momentum......Page 145
Conservation of Energy......Page 146
Problem......Page 147
Mass Conservation–Continuity Equation......Page 148
Momentum Conservation......Page 149
Analysis of Rate of Deformation......Page 150
Relationship Between Forces and Rate of Deformation......Page 151
Energy Conservation — The Mechanical and Thermal Energy Equations......Page 152
Boundary Conditions......Page 154
Vorticity in Incompressible Flow......Page 155
Stream Function......Page 157
Problem......Page 158
Further Information......Page 160
General Principles......Page 161
Example 2.3.1: Fully Developed Flow of Water Through a Smooth Round Pipe......Page 162
Example 2.3.2: Fully Developed Forced Convection in Fully Developed Flow in a Round Tube......Page 165
Example 2.3.3: Free Convection from a Vertical Isothermal Plate......Page 166
Correlation of Experimental Data and Theoretical Values......Page 169
The Evaluation of n......Page 170
Intermediate Regimes......Page 171
Example 2.3.4: The Pressure Gradient in Flow through a Packed Bed of Spheres......Page 172
Example 2.3.5: The Friction Factor for Commercial Pipes for All Conditions......Page 173
References......Page 176
Equations......Page 177
Fluid Friction......Page 178
Local Losses......Page 179
Pipe Materials......Page 181
Pressure Class Guidelines......Page 182
Control Valves......Page 183
Check Valves......Page 187
Air Valves......Page 188
Pump Selection......Page 189
Feasibility Study......Page 191
Thrust Blocks......Page 192
Further Information......Page 193
Uniform Flow......Page 194
Critical Flow......Page 195
Hydraulic Jump......Page 196
Weirs......Page 197
Gradually Varied Flow......Page 198
Example 2.5.2......Page 199
References......Page 201
Introduction and Scope......Page 202
Boundary Layer Thickness Defnitions......Page 203
Approximate Solutions......Page 204
Effect of Pressure Gradient......Page 205
Drag......Page 206
Pressure Drag......Page 207
Lift......Page 209
Profile Shapin......Page 210
Role of the Wind Tunnel......Page 211
Further Information......Page 212
Introduction......Page 213
One-Dimensional Flow......Page 214
Normal Shock Wave......Page 216
One-Dimensional Flow with Heat Addition......Page 218
Quasi-One-Dimensional Flow......Page 220
Nozzle Flow......Page 222
Two-Dimensional Supersonic Flow......Page 223
Oblique Shock Waves......Page 224
Thin-Airfoil Theory......Page 226
Further Information......Page 229
Fundamentals......Page 230
Flow Regimes......Page 233
Void Fractions......Page 235
Pressure Drop......Page 238
Minimum Fluidization......Page 239
Pneumatic Conveying......Page 241
2......Page 244
References......Page 245
Classification of Non-Newtonian Fluid......Page 246
Constitutive Equations......Page 248
Modified Power Law Constitutive Equatio......Page 249
Modified Power Law Fluid......Page 250
Power Law Fluids......Page 253
Fully Developed Turbulent Flow Pressure Drops......Page 254
Fully Developed Turbulent Flow Pressure Drops......Page 256
Nomenclature......Page 257
References......Page 258
Further Information......Page 259
Introduction......Page 261
Fourier’s Law......Page 262
Plane Wall at Steady State......Page 263
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficien......Page 264
Internal Heat Generation......Page 265
Fins......Page 266
Bodies with Signifcant Internal Resistance......Page 269
Finite Difference Analysis of Conduction......Page 271
References......Page 273
For Further Information......Page 274
Introduction......Page 275
Correlations for External Natural Convection......Page 277
Correlations for Open Cavities......Page 279
Heat Transfer in Enclosures......Page 281
References......Page 285
Introduction......Page 286
Flows with Zero Pressure Gradient and Negligible Viscous Dissipation......Page 287
Flows with Pressure Gradient and Negligible Viscous Dissipation......Page 292
Uniform Temperature: Flat Plate with Injection or Suction with External Flows of a Fluid Parallel to the Surface......Page 293
Flow over Flat Plate with Zero Pressure Gradient: Effect of High-Speed and Viscous Dissipation......Page 294
Flow over Cylinders, Spheres, and Other Geometries......Page 296
Heat Transfer across Tube Banks......Page 298
Example......Page 301
Heat Transfer with Jet Impingement......Page 304
Bibliography......Page 305
References......Page 306
Introduction......Page 307
Mixed Convection......Page 313
References......Page 315
Laminar Duct Heat Transfer — Purely Viscous, Time-Independent Non-Newtonian Fluids......Page 316
Turbulent Duct Flow for Purely Viscous Time-Independent Non-Newtonian Fluids......Page 319
Viscoelastic Fluids......Page 320
Free Convection Flows and Heat Transfer......Page 321
References......Page 323
Further Information......Page 324
Blackbody Radiation......Page 325
Radiative Properties of Surfaces......Page 327
View Factors......Page 329
Example 3.3.2......Page 334
Example 3.3.3......Page 335
Radiative Exchange between Opaque Surfaces (Net Radiation Method)......Page 336
Example 3.3.4......Page 337
Example 3.3.5......Page 338
Radiative Properties of Molecular Gases......Page 341
Example 3.3.6......Page 344
Radiative Properties of Particle Clouds......Page 345
Heat Exchange in the Presence of a Participating Medium......Page 346
Example 3.3.7......Page 347
Example 3.3.8......Page 348
Defining erms......Page 349
References......Page 350
Boiling......Page 352
Pool Boiling......Page 354
Internal Convective Boiling......Page 358
Condensation......Page 362
Defining erms......Page 366
References......Page 367
Bubbling Fluidized Beds......Page 368
Fast-Circulating Fluidized Beds......Page 371
References......Page 373
Introduction and Overview......Page 374
Melting and Freezing of Pure Materials......Page 376
Some Approximate Solutions......Page 381
Estimation of Freezing and Melting Time......Page 384
References......Page 386
Further Information......Page 387
Definitions of Concentration......Page 388
Concentrations at Interfaces......Page 390
Definitions of Fluxes and elocities......Page 392
Ordinary Diffusion......Page 393
Species Conservation Equation......Page 395
Steady Diffusion through a Plane Wall......Page 398
Transient Diffusion in a Semi-Infnite Solid......Page 399
Diffusion in a Porous Catalyst......Page 403
Heterogeneous Combustion......Page 405
Droplet Evaporation......Page 406
Droplet Combustion......Page 407
Mass Convection......Page 408
Low Mass Transfer Rate Theory......Page 409
Dimensionless Groups......Page 410
Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer......Page 412
The Wetand Dry-Bulb Psychrometer......Page 414
High Mass Transfer Rate Theory......Page 415
Variable Property Effects of High Mass Transfer Rates......Page 416
References......Page 420
Further Information......Page 421
4 Applications\r......Page 423
Introduction and Overview......Page 425
Distillation Processes......Page 426
Multi-Effect Distillation (ME)......Page 430
Vapor Compression Distillation (VC)......Page 431
Solar Distillation......Page 434
Reverse Osmosis (RO)......Page 435
Electrodialysis (ED)......Page 439
Defining Terms......Page 440
References......Page 441
Global Climate......Page 442
Average Temperature of Earth......Page 443
Albedo and Insolation......Page 446
Terrestrial Radiation......Page 448
Heat Reservoirs......Page 449
The Greenhouse Effect......Page 452
Energy Reservoirs......Page 457
Climate Variability......Page 458
Introduction to Model......Page 459
Methodology......Page 460
Carbon Emissions......Page 462
Climate......Page 464
References......Page 469
Introduction......Page 472
Types and Description......Page 474
Exchanger Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop Analysis......Page 482
4......Page 489
Heat Transfer and Flow Friction Correlations......Page 496
Exchanger Design Methodology......Page 501
Fouling in Heat Exchangers......Page 509
Nomenclature......Page 514
References......Page 516
Further Information......Page 518
Nomenclature of Heat Exchanger Components......Page 519
Construction Features......Page 520
Principles of Design......Page 524
Approximate Design Method......Page 527
Example of the Approximate Design Method......Page 532
References......Page 535
Coupling of Temperature History to Rate Processes......Page 537
Tissue Thermal Transport Properties......Page 538
Measurement of Thermal Conductivity and Diffusivity......Page 539
Estimation of Heat Transfer Coeffcient......Page 543
Temperature-Dependent Thermal Properties......Page 545
Effect of Blood Flow on Temperature......Page 548
Limitations of Pennes’ Model......Page 550
Continuum Models......Page 551
Vasculature-Based Models......Page 552
Thermal Measurements of Perfusion......Page 555
Physiological Processes of Thermoregulation......Page 559
Thermoregulatory Processes......Page 560
Wissler Model of Human Thermoregulation......Page 561
Heat Generation Modalities......Page 563
Physiologic Effects of Local Heating......Page 564
Theory of Rate Process Descriptions......Page 565
Application of Kinetic Formulations in Thermal Damage Studies......Page 569
Histologic Markers of Thermal Damage*......Page 573
Damage Rate Process Coeffcients......Page 577
Tissue Effects: Subzero Temperatures......Page 581
Cryopreservation......Page 582
Cryosurgery......Page 589
References......Page 590
Appendix A......Page 600
Appendix B......Page 603
Introduction......Page 611
Gas Conduction and Convection......Page 612
Combined Thermal Conductivity......Page 613
Powder Systems......Page 614
Commercial Fibrous and Solid Insulation Systems for Moderate and High Temperatures......Page 616
Thermal Insulation Products and Installation......Page 618
Vacuum Maintenance......Page 619
Acknowledgment......Page 620
References......Page 621
Types of Energy Audits......Page 623
Detailed Energy Audit......Page 624
Step 2: Walk-Through Survey......Page 625
Building Envelope......Page 626
HVAC Systems......Page 629
Indoor Water Management......Page 630
Case Study......Page 631
Step 2: On-Site Survey......Page 632
Step 3: Energy Use Baseline Model Occupancy 17 m /person......Page 634
Step 4: Evaluation of Energy Conservation Opportunities (ECOS)......Page 635
Recommendations......Page 636
Regression Models......Page 637
References......Page 638
Positive Displacement Compressors and Application to Refrigeration and Air Conditioning......Page 640
Compressor Type by Construction......Page 641
Compressor Type by Kinematic Linkages......Page 644
Centrifugal Compressors......Page 653
Axial Flow Compressors......Page 658
Performance Considerations......Page 662
Thermal Issues......Page 666
References......Page 668
Pumps......Page 670
Centrifugal and Other Velocity Head Pumps......Page 671
Pump/Flow Considerations......Page 672
Fans......Page 674
Further Information......Page 676
Packing Thermal Performance......Page 678
Thermal-Hydraulic Design of Cooling Towers......Page 682
Cooling Tower Behavior......Page 684
Cooling Demand Curves......Page 686
References......Page 687
Further Information......Page 688
Effect of Heat Transfer in the Castings......Page 690
Freezing of an Alloy......Page 691
Secondary Processes (Shape Casting)......Page 694
Heat Input......Page 695
Fusion Zone......Page 696
Heat-Affected Zone......Page 697
Thermal History......Page 699
Moving Point Source of Heat......Page 701
Moving Line Source of Heat......Page 702
Hardening Heat-Treating Processes......Page 704
Machining......Page 708
Deformation Processing......Page 709
Thermoplastics Processing......Page 710
Thermal Spray Deposition......Page 711
References......Page 712
Introduction......Page 713
Temperature-Enthalpy Diagram......Page 714
Software......Page 715
Optimization Variables and Heat Exchanger Network Design Philosophy......Page 716
Energy Targets......Page 722
Capital Cost Targets......Page 725
Significance of the Pinch Poin......Page 729
Network Representation on the Grid Diagram......Page 731
Pinch Point and Network Design......Page 733
Example......Page 736
Selection of Utility Loads and Levels......Page 737
Data Extraction......Page 740
References......Page 741
Air Liquefaction......Page 745
Hydrogen Liquefaction......Page 747
Helium Liquefaction......Page 748
Joule-Thomson Cryocooler......Page 749
Stirling Cryocooler......Page 750
Vuilleumier (VM) Cryocooler......Page 751
Gifford-McMahon (GM) Cryocooler......Page 752
Magnetic Refrigerator......Page 753
Dilution Refrigerator......Page 754
Cryogenic Heat Exchanger Types......Page 755
Cryogenic Heat Exchanger Design Problems......Page 757
Regenerators......Page 758
Cryogenic Insulation......Page 759
References......Page 761
Further Information......Page 763
Properties of Moist Air......Page 764
Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air......Page 765
Psychrometric Chart......Page 768
Thermal Comfort Conditions......Page 775
Cooling Load......Page 776
Heating Load......Page 779
Carnot Refrigeration Cycle......Page 782
Vapor Compression Cycle......Page 783
Compressors......Page 785
Absorption Cycle......Page 789
Refrigerant Selection......Page 790
All-Air Systems......Page 794
All-Water Systems......Page 796
References......Page 797
Introduction......Page 799
Basic Concepts......Page 800
Objective Function......Page 801
Constraints......Page 802
Operating Conditions Vs. Hardware......Page 805
Calculus Methods......Page 806
Search Methods......Page 810
Linear and Dynamic Programming......Page 824
Geometric Programming and Other Methods......Page 825
Important Considerations......Page 829
Different Types of Thermal Systems......Page 830
Examples......Page 831
Conclusions......Page 834
References......Page 835
Introduction......Page 837
Single-Phase Forced Convection......Page 839
Active and Compound Techniques for Single-Phase Forced Convection......Page 842
Pool Boiling......Page 843
Convective Boiling/Evaporation......Page 844
Vapor-Space Condensation......Page 845
Further Information......Page 846
Introduction......Page 848
Heat Transfer Limitations......Page 849
Effective Thermal Conductivity and Heat Pipe Temperature Difference......Page 852
Design Example......Page 853
Further Information......Page 858
Spray Characterization......Page 860
Atomizer Design Considerations......Page 861
Atomizer Types......Page 862
Further Information......Page 868
Heating Process and Methods......Page 869
Cooling Process and Methods......Page 870
Forced-Air Cooling......Page 871
Hydraircooling......Page 872
Vacuum Cooling......Page 873
Cool and Cold Storage......Page 874
Refrigerated Transport......Page 875
Moisture Loss (Transpiration)......Page 876
Cooling Process Parameters......Page 877
Fourier-Reynolds Correlations......Page 878
Cooling Heat Transfer Parameters......Page 879
Effective Nusselt-Reynolds Correlations......Page 884
References......Page 885
Further Information......Page 886
Introduction......Page 888
Simulation Hierarchy for Solid-Phase Heat Conduction......Page 892
Basic Properties of Phonons......Page 893
Basic Properties of Electrons in Metals......Page 900
Transport Theory for Phonons and Electrons......Page 902
Moments of the Boltzmann Equations......Page 906
Diffusion Theory......Page 909
Thermal Conduction Properties of Electronic Films......Page 910
Definitions of the Effective Thermal Conductivities in Film......Page 913
Single-Crystal Semiconducting Films and Superlattices......Page 914
Polycrystalline Dielectric and Semiconducting Films......Page 919
Amorphous Oxide and Organic Films......Page 920
Interface Resistance......Page 923
Thin-Film Thermal Properties......Page 924
Temperature Fields in Devices......Page 928
Summary......Page 930
References......Page 931
Material Limits......Page 936
Impact on Performance TABLE 4.20.2 Temperature Sensitive......Page 937
Thermal Characteristics of Printed Circuit Boards (PCB)......Page 938
Package Architecture......Page 942
Types of Thermal Interface Materials......Page 947
Understanding Temperature Limits......Page 949
Typical Heat Transfer Schemes......Page 953
Thermal Management: Some Test Cases......Page 954
Impact of Temperature on Handheld Product Reliability......Page 955
Acceleration Transforms......Page 959
Understanding the Environment......Page 961
Typical Heat Transfer Methods......Page 962
Impact of Equipment Location......Page 963
Fan Selection......Page 965
References......Page 966
Selected U.S. Electronic Thermal Management Patents......Page 968
Bibliography......Page 971
Falling Films......Page 976
Heat Transfer to Jets and Sheets......Page 980
Sensible Heat Transfer to Dispersed Media: Drops, Particles, Bubbles......Page 981
Evaporation and Boiling......Page 986
Collapsing Bubble Condensation......Page 990
Direct Contact Condensation Falling Films......Page 991
References......Page 994
Thermocouples......Page 1000
Thermistors......Page 1006
Resistance Temperature Detectors......Page 1007
Radiation Devices......Page 1010
Temperature-Sensitive Paints, Crayons, and Badges......Page 1011
Planar Heat Flux Gauge......Page 1014
Circular Foil Gauges......Page 1015
Steady-State Errors in Gas-Temperature Measurement......Page 1016
Steady-State Errors in Solid and Surface-Temperature Measurements......Page 1017
Steady-State Errors in Heat Flux Gauges for Convective Heat Transfer......Page 1018
Direct Methods......Page 1019
Indirect Methods......Page 1021
References......Page 1022
Restriction Flow Meters for Flow in Ducts......Page 1025
Orifice Plate......Page 1027
Flow Nozzles......Page 1028
Venturi Meters......Page 1029
Rotameters......Page 1030
Turbine Flow Meters......Page 1032
Vortex Shedding Meters......Page 1033
Ultrasonic Flow Meters......Page 1034
Coriolis Meters......Page 1035
Pressure Probes......Page 1036
Hot-Wire Anemometry......Page 1039
Equations Governing Hot-Wire Anemometry......Page 1040
Probe Design......Page 1041
Multicomponent Probes......Page 1042
Directional Response......Page 1043
Laser Doppler Anemometry......Page 1044
Particle Image Velocimetry......Page 1048
Viscosity Measurements......Page 1050
Additional Reading......Page 1051
Nomenclature......Page 1054
Introduction......Page 1055
AI and Its Scope......Page 1056
Heat Exchangers......Page 1057
Artificial Neural Networ......Page 1058
Methodology......Page 1059
Application to Compact Heat Exchangers......Page 1063
Thermal System Dynamics and Control......Page 1072
Additional Applications in Thermal Engineering......Page 1076
Genetic Algorithms......Page 1080
Methodology......Page 1081
Applications to Compact Heat Exchangers......Page 1083
Additional Applications in Thermal Engineering......Page 1086
Concluding Remarks......Page 1088
References......Page 1089
5.1 Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE)......Page 1097
Approximate Solutions to a One-Dimensional Heat Equation......Page 1098
The Crank-Nicolson Algorithm......Page 1100
A Steady-State Problem — An Elliptic PDE......Page 1102
Some Iterative Methods for Linear Equations......Page 1103
Line (or Block) G-S and SOR Iteration......Page 1106
The Dirichlet Boundary Condition......Page 1107
Conclusions on Direct and Iterative Methods......Page 1109
FEM Concept......Page 1110
Weighted Integrals and Weak Forms of the Heat Equation......Page 1111
A Simple Example of the FEM......Page 1113
Quadratic Triangular Element......Page 1116
Computing the Stiffness Matrix......Page 1118
Integration over the Standard Triangle......Page 1119
Some Rectangular Elements......Page 1120
The Serendipity Element......Page 1121
Three-Dimensional Elements......Page 1123
Integration in Three Dimensions FIGURE 5.14 The quadratic prism.......Page 1125
Line Integral in Two Dimensions......Page 1126
Surface Integral in Three Dimensions......Page 1127
Time-Dependent Problems......Page 1128
Variational Forms of Elliptic Problems......Page 1130
Error Estimates......Page 1131
5.4 Boundary Element Method......Page 1133
BEM in Two Dimensions......Page 1135
Mixed Boundary Value Problem......Page 1137
A Numerical Example in Two Dimensions......Page 1138
More Accurate Integrations......Page 1139
Three-Dimensional Problems......Page 1141
General Purpose Interactive Mathematical Software......Page 1142
Major Engineering Finite Element Packages......Page 1143
References......Page 1144
Appendices......Page 1147
Appendix A. Properties of Gases and Vapors......Page 1148
Appendix B. Properties of Liquids......Page 1181
Appendix C. Properties of Solids......Page 1183
Definitions of SI Base Unit......Page 1186
SI Derived Units with Special Names and Symbols......Page 1187
Conversion Factors — Metric to English......Page 1188
Conversion Factors — General......Page 1189
Conversion of Temperatures......Page 1190