COVID-19 in Alzheimer's Disease and Dementia

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COVID-19 in Alzheimer’s Disease and Dementia
COVID-19 in Alzheimer’s Disease and Dementia
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Contents
List of contributors
Preface
One -  COVID-19
	1 - COVID-19 and immunity: an overview
		1. Introduction
		2. COVID-19: risk factors and pathogenesis
		3. COVID-19 variants and their impact on global health tragedy
		4. Nutrients and immune health, and their relevance to COVID-19
		5. Immunocompromised conditions and COVID-19
			5.1 Aging
			5.2 Diabetes
			5.3 Obesity
			5.4 Cancers
			5.5 Neurological diseases
		6. Diverse measures for preventing COVID-19
		7. Potential therapies for the treatment of COVID-19
		8. Summary and conclusions
		Acknowledgments
		References
	2 - Role of oxidative stress in the severity of SARS-COV-2 infection
		1. Oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation
			1.1 Cellular origins and metabolism of ROS
		2. Inflammatory stress
		3. Quenching lipid peroxidation
			3.1 Oxidative stress and COVID-19
		4. 4-HNE in COVID-19
		5. Functions of 4-HNE with possible relevance to COVID-19
		References
	3 - Immune enhancers for COVID-19
		1. Introduction
		2. Immune enhancement—supplements
			2.1 Fat soluble vitamins
				2.1.1 Vitamin D (Ergocalciferol)
				2.1.2 Vitamin E (Tocopherol)
				2.1.3 Vitamin K (Phylloquinone)
			2.2 Water-soluble vitamins
				2.2.1 Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)
				2.2.2 B vitamins
				2.2.3 Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
				2.2.4 Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
				2.2.5 Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
				2.2.6 Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid)
				2.2.7 Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
				2.2.8 Vitamin B7 (Biotin)
				2.2.9 Vitamin B9 (Folic acid, folate)
				2.2.10 Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin, Cobalamin)
			2.3 Micronutrients
		3. Immune enhancers—diet, herbs, and spices
		4. Conclusion
		References
	4 - Diabetes mellitus in relation to COVID-19
		1. Introduction
		2. Type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes
		3. Biomarkers and risk factors in COVID-19-infected patients
			3.1 Inflammatory and blood biomarkers
			3.2 Obesity as an independent risk factor in COVID-19 infection
		4. Entry of SARS-CoV-2 into the host
		5. Complications of diabetes during COVID-19 infection
			5.1 Diabetic ketoacidosis
			5.2 Mucormycosis
		6. Treatment and management of diabetes during COVID-19 infection
		7. The effect of lockdowns on diabetes and obesity
		8. Lifestyle and diet during COVID-19 pandemic
			8.1 Macronutrients- carbohydrates, proteins, and fatty acids
			8.2 Micronutrients—vitamins, selenium, and zinc
			8.3 Mediterranean diet
		9. Conclusion
		References
	5 - Food bioactive compounds, sources, and their effectiveness during COVID-19
		1. Introduction
		2. COVID-19 and food safety
		3. Bioactive compounds
			3.1 Polyphenols
				3.1.1 Phenolic acids
				3.1.2 Flavonoids
				3.1.3 Anthocyanins
				3.1.4 Tannins
			3.2 Carotenoids
			3.3 Bioactive carbohydrates
			3.4 Phytosterols
		4. Foods containing bioactive compounds helpful during COVID-19 infection
			4.1 Cereals and legumes
			4.2 Fruits and vegetables
			4.3 Spices
			4.4 Beverages
			4.5 Herbs
		5. Mechanistic activity of bioactive compounds helpful for COVID-19
		6. Conclusion
		References
	6 - MicroRNAs and COVID-19
		1. Introduction
		2. MicroRNAs as biomarkers for COVID-19
			2.1 Serum microRNAs
			2.2 Plasma microRNAs
		3. Molecular basis of microRNAs in COVID-19 infection
			3.1 Lungs
			3.2 Heart
			3.3 Kidney
		4. MicroRNAs as therapeutic for COVID-19
		5. Conclusion
		References
	7 - Mechanisms and implications of COVID-19 transport into neural tissue
		1. Introduction
		2. Viruses and neurological damage
		3. SARS-CoV-2 virulence and neurologic invasion
			3.1 ACE2 receptors
			3.2 Blood–brain barrier
			3.3 Transsynaptic neuronal transfer
			3.4 Olfactory system entry
		4. Conclusion
		References
		Further reading
	8 - Immunogenetic landscape of COVID-19 infections related neurological complications
		1. Introduction
		2. HLA immunogenetic variations
		3. HLA immunogenetics and COVID-19
			3.1 Population size and increased immunogenetic variations
			3.2 Specific HLA variants and population associations
			3.3 Delta variant
		4. HLA associations in COVID-19 induced neurological disorders
			4.1 Opportunities for future study
		5. Conclusions
		References
	9 - Impact of COVID-19 on ischemic stroke condition
		1. Introduction
			1.1 Stroke
		2. Coronavirus and SARS CoV-2
		3. Epidemiology of stroke and COVID-19
		4. Mechanism of stroke in COVID-19
		5. Thrombosis
		6. Cytokine storm
		7. Endothelium disruption
		8. Tissue factor and extrinsic coagulation pathway
		9. Treatment of acute ischemic stroke in COVID-19
			9.1 Thromboprophylaxis
			9.2 Intravenous thrombolysis
		10. Anesthesia for mechanical thrombectomy
		11. Clinical characteristics of patients with COVID-19 and stroke
		12. Major challenges of managing stroke during COVID-19 situation
		13. Conclusion and future directions
		References
	10 - The psychiatric effects of COVID-19 in the elderly
		1. Introduction
		2. Elderly isolation during COVID-19
		3. Elderly health care during COVID-19
		4. COVID-19-associated psychiatric disorders
			4.1 An elderly focus
			4.2 COVID-19-associated delirium
			4.3 Neurocognitive disorders
			4.4 Major depressive disorder
			4.5 Obsessive compulsive disorder
			4.6 Psychosis
			4.7 Posttraumatic stress disorder
		5. Management of psychiatric disorders related to COVID-19
		6. Pharmacological agents
		7. Conclusion
		References
Two -  Alzheimer's disease and dementia during COVID-19
	11 - Blood brain barrier disruption following COVID-19 infection and neurological manifestations
		1. Introduction
		2. Structure and function of BBB
		3. Mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 entry into the brain
			3.1 Hematogenous route
			3.2 Retrograde nerve transmission
			3.3 Receptor-mediated entry
		4. BBB disruption
			4.1 Zonulin hypothesis: mechanism for SARS-CoV-2 mediated BBB disruption
			4.2 Interaction of SARS-CoV-2 with BECs and other components of NVU
			4.3 SARS-CoV-2 infection: indirect effects on BBB
				4.3.1 Hyperinflammation induced increase in BBB permeability
		5. Hypoxia
		6. Clotting and thrombosis
		7. Neurological consequences of disrupted BBB post-SARS-CoV-2 infection
			7.1 Alzheimer's disease
			7.2 COVID-19 infection and BBB disruption in other neurodegenerative diseases
		8. Treatment to prevent BBB disruption following SARS-CoV-2 infection
		9. Conclusions
		Abbreviations
		References
	12 - The effects of lifestyle in Alzheimer's disease during the COVID-19 pandemic
		1. Introduction
		2. Exercise
		3. Diet
			3.1 The Mediterranean diet
			3.2 COVID-19 and diet
		4. Social interaction
		5. Nursing homes
		6. Conclusion
		References
	13 - Dementia and COVID-19: An African American focused study
		1. Introduction
		2. Dementia/COVID-19
			2.1 What is dementia?
			2.2 Prevalence of dementia in the US African American population
			2.3 What is COVID-19?
			2.4 Prevalence of COVID-19 in the US African American population
			2.5 Risk factors causing dementia and COVID-19
		3. Unmodifiable risk factors
			3.1 Increasing age
			3.2 Predisposing genetics
		4. Modifiable risk factors
			4.1 Income/socioeconomic status
			4.2 Education
			4.3 Exercise and diet
			4.4 Smoking and tobacco use
		5. Age-related chronic diseases
			5.1 Diabetes
			5.2 Kidney disease
			5.3 Hypercholesterolemia
			5.4 Cardiovascular disease
			5.5 Chronic lung diseases
			5.6 Dementia
		6. Environmental risk factors
			6.1 Social inequalities
			6.2 Lack of access to healthcare
		7. Concluding remarks
		Acknowledgments
		References
		Further reading
	14 - Dementia and COVID-19: A Hispanic focused study
		1. Introduction
		2. Dementia/COVID-19
			2.1 What is dementia?
			2.2 Prevalence of dementia in the US Hispanic population
			2.3 What is COVID-19?
			2.4 Prevalence of COVID-19 in the US Hispanic population
			2.5 Risk factors causing dementia and COVID-19
		3. Unmodifiable risk factors
			3.1 Increasing age
			3.2 Predisposing genetics
		4. Modifiable risk factors
			4.1 Income/socioeconomic status
			4.2 Education
			4.3 Exercise and diet
			4.4 Smoking and tobacco use
		5. Age-related chronic diseases
			5.1 Diabetes
			5.2 Kidney disease
			5.3 Hypercholesterolemia
			5.4 Cardiovascular disease
			5.5 Chronic lung diseases
			5.6 Dementia
		6. Environmental factors
			6.1 Social inequalities
			6.2 Lack of access to healthcare
		7. Concluding remarks
		Acknowledgments
		References
	15 - Women and Alzheimer's disease risk: a focus on gender
		1. Introduction
		2. Education
		3. Employment
		4. Race
		5. Sexual and gender identity
		6. Exercise
		7. Depression
		8. Caregiver burden
		9. COVID-19 pandemic
		10. Conclusion
		References
	16 - Women and Alzheimer's disease: a focus on sex
		1. Introduction
		2. Clinical presentation
		3. Disease progression
		4. Neuropathology
		5. Genetics
		6. Endogenous estrogen exposure
			6.1 Age of menarche, menopause, and reproductive span
			6.2 Natural menopause
			6.3 Surgical menopause
		7. Exogenous estrogen exposure
			7.1 Oral contraceptive pills
			7.2 Hormone replacement therapy
			7.3 Selective estrogen receptor modulators
		8. Pregnancy
			8.1 Uncomplicated pregnancies
			8.2 Adverse pregnancy outcomes
		9. Vascular risk
		10. Pharmacology
		11. COVID-19 pandemic
		12. Conclusion
		References
	17 - Effect of COVID-19 on Alzheimer's and dementia measured through ocular indications
		1. Introduction
		2. Ocular indications for early screening of Alzheimer’s disease
		3. Methods of visualizing the retina
		4. Ophthalmology during COVID-19
		5. Conclusion
		References
	18 - Surgical and nonsurgical interventions for Alzheimer's disease
		1. Introduction
			1.1 Alzheimer's disease—general
			1.2 Alzheimer's disease—circuit anatomy
		2. Invasive brain stimulation
			2.1 Deep brain stimulation
				2.1.1 DBS—stimulation locations
				2.1.2 DBS—trials
				2.1.3 DBS—benefits in AD
			2.2 CSF shunting
			2.3 Omental patch
			2.4 Other invasive surgical interventions for AD
		3. Non-invasive brain stimulation procedures
			3.1 Transcranial magnetic stimulation
			3.2 Transcranial electrical stimulation
			3.3 Other NIBS
			3.4 Neurosurgery during COVID-19
		4. Conclusion
		References
Index
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