Corrosion Engineering: Principles and Practice

Contents......Page 5
Preface......Page 15
1.1 Why Study Corrosion?......Page 17
1.2 The Study of Corrosion......Page 18
1.3 Needs for Corrosion Education......Page 21
1.4 The Functions and Roles of a Corrosion Engineer......Page 24
1.5 The Corrosion Engineer’s Education......Page 27
1.6 Strategic Impact and Cost of Corrosion Damage......Page 29
References......Page 33
2.1 Why Metals Corrode......Page 35
2.2 Matter Building Blocks......Page 38
2.3 Acidity and Alkalinity (pH)......Page 44
2.4.1 Corrosion in Acids......Page 47
2.4.2 Corrosion in Neutral and Alkaline Solutions......Page 48
Reference......Page 49
3.1 Electrochemical Reactions......Page 51
3.2 Anodic Processes......Page 54
3.3 Faraday’s Law......Page 55
3.4 Cathodic Processes......Page 56
3.5 Surface Area Effect......Page 61
Reference......Page 63
4.1 Free Energy......Page 65
4.2 Standard Electrode Potentials......Page 67
4.3 Nernst Equation......Page 70
4.4.1 The Aluminum-Air Power Source......Page 71
4.4.2 Detailed Calculations......Page 75
4.5 Reference Half-Cells (Electrodes)......Page 78
4.5.2 Silver/Silver Chloride Reference Electrode......Page 82
4.5.3 Copper/Copper Sulfate Reference Electrode......Page 84
4.6 Measuring the Corrosion Potential......Page 87
4.7 Measuring pH......Page 88
4.7.1 Glass Electrodes......Page 89
4.8 Potential-pH Diagram......Page 90
4.8.1 E-pH Diagram of Water......Page 91
4.8.2 E-pH Diagrams of Metals......Page 92
References......Page 100
5.1 What Is Overpotential?......Page 101
5.2 Activation Polarization......Page 102
5.3 Concentration Polarization......Page 106
5.4.1 Water Resistivity Measurements......Page 110
5.4.2 Soil Resistivity Measurements......Page 113
5.5.1 Activation Controlled Processes......Page 119
5.5.2 Concentration Controlled Processes......Page 120
5.6.1 Electrochemical Polarization Corrosion Testing......Page 123
5.6.2 Corrosion Monitoring......Page 137
5.6.3 Cathodic Protection......Page 150
5.6.4 Anodic Protection......Page 151
5.6.5 Aluminum Anodizing......Page 153
5.6.6 Chloride Extraction......Page 158
References......Page 160
6.1 Recognizing Corrosion......Page 163
6.2 General or Uniform Attack......Page 167
6.3.1 Pitting Corrosion......Page 171
6.3.2 Crevice Corrosion......Page 180
6.3.3 Galvanic Corrosion......Page 191
6.3.4 Intergranular Corrosion......Page 196
6.3.5 Dealloying......Page 197
6.3.6 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking......Page 199
6.3.7 Hydrogen Blistering......Page 200
6.4 Velocity Induced Corrosion......Page 201
6.4.1 Erosion–Corrosion......Page 204
6.4.2 Cavitation......Page 208
6.5 Mechanically Assisted Corrosion......Page 210
6.5.1 Stress Corrosion Cracking......Page 213
6.5.2 Corrosion Fatigue......Page 217
6.5.3 Fretting Corrosion......Page 219
References......Page 221
7.1 Introduction......Page 223
7.2.1 Temperature Effects......Page 225
7.2.2 Fluid Velocity Effects......Page 226
7.2.3 Impurities in the Environment......Page 227
7.2.5 Presence of Stray Currents......Page 229
7.3 Identifying the Corrosion Factors......Page 232
7.4 Examples of Corrosion Cells......Page 240
7.4.1 Galvanic Cells......Page 243
7.4.2 Concentration Cells......Page 247
7.4.3 Differential Aeration: Oxygen Concentration Cells......Page 249
7.4.4 Temperature Cells......Page 251
7.4.5 Stray Current Cells......Page 253
7.4.6 Stress Cells......Page 255
7.4.7 Surface Film Cells......Page 259
7.4.8 Microbial Corrosion Cells......Page 261
7.5 Corrosion Avoidance......Page 262
7.5.2 Crevice Corrosion Mitigation......Page 263
7.5.5 Mitigation of Stress Corrosion Cracking......Page 264
7.6 Visualizing Corrosion Cells......Page 266
References......Page 270
8.2 Corrosion and Water Quality and Availability......Page 273
8.2.1 Corrosion Impact......Page 274
8.2.2 Corrosion Management......Page 276
8.2.3 Condition Assessment Techniques......Page 281
8.3.1 Natural Waters......Page 284
8.3.2 Treated Waters......Page 300
8.4.1 Once-Through Systems......Page 303
8.4.2 Recirculated Systems......Page 304
8.4.3 Heat Exchangers......Page 307
8.5.1 Treatment of Boiler Feedwater Makeup......Page 310
8.5.2 Fossil Fuel Steam Plants......Page 312
8.5.3 Supercritical Steam Plants......Page 313
8.5.4 Waste Heat Boilers......Page 314
8.5.5 Nuclear Boiling Water Reactors......Page 315
8.5.6 Nuclear Pressurized Water Reactors......Page 316
8.5.7 Corrosion Costs to the Power Industry......Page 318
8.6 Water Treatment......Page 323
8.6.1 Corrosion Inhibitors......Page 325
8.6.3 Microorganisms......Page 327
8.7 Scaling Indices......Page 329
8.7.1 Langelier Saturation Index......Page 330
8.7.2 Other Indices......Page 332
8.8 Ion-Association Model......Page 334
8.8.1 Limiting Halite Deposition in a Wet High-Temperature Gas Well......Page 336
8.8.2 Identifying Acceptable Operating Range for Ozonated Cooling Systems......Page 337
8.8.3 Optimizing Calcium Phosphate Scale Inhibitor Dosage in a High-TDS Cooling System......Page 342
References......Page 343
9.1 Introduction......Page 345
9.2.1 Industrial......Page 346
9.2.3 Rural......Page 347
9.2.4 Indoor......Page 349
9.3 Factors Affecting Atmospheric Corrosion......Page 350
9.3.1 Relative Humidity and Dew Point......Page 354
9.3.2 Pollutants......Page 355
9.3.3 Deposition of Aerosol Particles......Page 356
9.3.4 Deicing Salts......Page 357
9.4.1 Time of Wetness......Page 365
9.4.3 Airborne Chlorides......Page 366
9.4.4 Atmospheric Corrosivity......Page 369
9.5.1 Environmental Severity Index......Page 374
9.5.3 Maps of Atmospheric Corrosivity......Page 378
9.6 Atmospheric Corrosion Tests......Page 382
9.7.1 Iron, Steel, and Stainless Steel......Page 386
9.7.2 Copper and Copper Alloys......Page 391
9.7.3 Nickel and Nickel Alloys......Page 392
9.7.4 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys......Page 393
9.7.5 Zinc and Zinc Alloys......Page 395
9.7.6 Polymeric Materials......Page 397
References......Page 399
10.2 Corrosion in Soils......Page 401
10.2.1 Soil Classification......Page 403
10.2.2 Soil Parameters Affecting Corrosivity......Page 405
10.2.3 Soil Corrosivity Classifications......Page 407
10.2.4 Auxiliary Effects of Corrosion Cells......Page 410
10.2.5 Examples of Buried Systems......Page 414
10.2.6 Corrosion of Materials Other Than Steel......Page 419
10.3 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion......Page 423
10.3.1 Planktonic or Sessile......Page 425
10.3.2 Microbes Classification......Page 427
10.3.3 Monitoring Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion......Page 432
References......Page 444
11.1 Materials Selection......Page 447
11.2.1 Multiple Forms of Corrosion......Page 449
11.2.2 Multiple Material/Environment Combinations......Page 450
11.2.3 Precision of Corrosion Data......Page 453
11.2.4 Complexity of Materials/Performance Interactions......Page 454
11.3 Selection Compromises......Page 456
11.3.1 Life-Cycle Costing......Page 457
11.3.2 Condition Assessment......Page 459
11.4 Materials Selection Road Map......Page 461
11.4.1 Identify Initial Slate of Candidate Materials......Page 462
11.4.3 Conduct Environmental Assessment......Page 463
11.4.4 Evaluate Materials Based on Potential Corrosion Failure Modes......Page 466
11.5 Design Considerations......Page 467
11.5.1 Designing Adequate Drainage......Page 470
11.5.2 Adequate Joining and Attachments......Page 475
11.6.1 Test Objectives......Page 479
11.6.2 Test Standards......Page 480
11.6.3 Cabinet Testing......Page 487
References......Page 490
12.1 Risk Assessment......Page 493
12.2 Risk Analysis......Page 494
12.3 Risk and Corrosion Control......Page 497
12.4 Key Performance Indicators......Page 500
12.4.1 Cost of Corrosion Key Performance Indicator......Page 501
12.4.2 Corrosion Inhibition Level Key Performance Indicator......Page 502
12.4.4 Selecting Key Performance Indicators......Page 504
12.5.1 Hazard and Operability......Page 507
12.5.2 Failure Modes, Effects, and Criticality Analysis......Page 509
12.5.3 Risk Matrix Methods......Page 511
12.5.4 Fault Tree Analysis......Page 512
12.5.5 Event Tree Analysis......Page 516
12.6 Risk-Based Inspection......Page 519
12.6.2 Consequence of Failure Assessment......Page 520
12.6.3 Application of Risk-Based Inspection......Page 521
12.7 Industrial Example: Transmission Pipelines......Page 523
12.7.1 External Corrosion Damage Assessment......Page 528
12.7.2 Internal Corrosion Damage Assessment......Page 531
12.7.4 In-Line Inspection......Page 534
References......Page 538
13.1 Cathodic Protection Historical Notes......Page 541
13.2 How Cathodic Protection Works in Water......Page 542
13.2.1 Sacrificial Cathodic Protection......Page 543
13.2.2 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection......Page 545
13.3 How Cathodic Protection Works in Soils......Page 548
13.3.2 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection......Page 552
13.3.3 Anode Beds......Page 554
13.3.4 Anode Backfill......Page 556
13.4 How Cathodic Protection Works in Concrete......Page 560
13.4.1 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection......Page 561
13.4.2 Sacrificial Cathodic Protection......Page 564
13.5.1 Reference Electrodes......Page 566
13.5.2 Anodes......Page 569
13.5.3 Rectified Current Sources......Page 577
13.5.4 Other Current Sources......Page 579
13.5.5 Wires and Cables......Page 580
13.6 Potential to Environment......Page 581
13.7 Current Requirement Tests......Page 582
13.7.1 Tests for a Coated System......Page 583
13.8 Stray Current Effects......Page 585
13.9.1 Close Interval Potential Surveys......Page 587
13.9.2 Pearson Survey......Page 589
13.9.3 Direct and Alternating Current Voltage Gradient Surveys......Page 592
13.9.4 Corrosion Coupons......Page 593
13.10 Simulation and Optimization of Cathodic Protection Designs......Page 594
13.10.1 Modeling Ship Impressed Current Cathodic Protection......Page 595
13.10.2 Modeling Cathodic Protection in the Presence of Interference......Page 598
References......Page 601
14.1 Types of Coatings......Page 603
14.2 Why Coatings Fail......Page 604
14.3 Soluble Salts and Coating Failures......Page 608
14.4 Economic Aspects of Coatings Selection and Maintenance......Page 614
14.5.1 Coating Functionality......Page 619
14.5.2 Basic Components......Page 626
14.6.2 Corrosion Prevention Compounds......Page 631
14.6.3 Volatile Corrosion Inhibitors......Page 636
14.7.1 Hydraulic Cement......Page 639
14.7.2 Ceramics and Glass......Page 640
14.7.4 Phosphatizing......Page 641
14.7.7 Passive Films......Page 642
14.8.1 Electroplating......Page 643
14.8.2 Electroless Plating......Page 645
14.8.4 Cladding......Page 646
14.8.5 Metallizing (Thermal Spray)......Page 647
14.9 Coating Inspection and Testing......Page 654
14.9.1 Condition of the Substrate......Page 655
14.9.3 Coating Inspection......Page 657
14.9.4 Laboratory Testing......Page 663
14.9.5 Holiday Detection......Page 668
14.10.1 Principles of Coating Adhesion......Page 670
14.10.2 Abrasive Cleaning......Page 671
14.10.3 Water Jetting......Page 674
14.10.5 Other Surface Preparation Methods......Page 675
References......Page 677
15.1 Introduction......Page 679
15.2.1 Standard Free Energy of Formation......Page 682
15.2.2 Vapor Species Diagrams......Page 685
15.2.3 2D Isothermal Stability Diagrams......Page 689
15.3 Kinetic Principles......Page 691
15.3.1 Scale as a Diffusion Barrier......Page 692
15.3.2 Basic Kinetic Models......Page 694
15.3.3 Pilling-Bedworth Ratio......Page 696
15.4 Practical High-Temperature Corrosion Problems......Page 699
15.4.1 Oxidation......Page 700
15.4.2 Sulfidation......Page 706
15.4.3 Carburization......Page 716
15.4.4 Metal Dusting......Page 720
15.4.5 Nitridation......Page 721
15.4.7 Fuel Ash and Salt Deposits......Page 722
15.4.8 Corrosion by Molten Salts......Page 724
15.4.9 Corrosion in Liquid Metals......Page 725
References......Page 726
A: Historical Perspective......Page 727
References......Page 730
B: Periodic Table......Page 731
A.1 How to Read This Table......Page 733
A.2 Using the Table......Page 739
A......Page 741
B......Page 743
C......Page 744
E......Page 750
F......Page 752
G......Page 753
H......Page 754
I......Page 755
L......Page 756
M......Page 757
N......Page 759
P......Page 760
R......Page 762
S......Page 763
T......Page 766
W......Page 768
Y......Page 769
Z......Page 770